Business Analysis on Sony Corporation

Business Analysis on Sony Corporation for the years between 2001 and 2011 Overview Looking back on the past decade of Sony Corporation, opportunities walked along with challenges. The â€Å"combination of giants† between Sony and Ericsson caught attention of the whole world. The invention of mini vertical mobile phone promptly captured the youth market. When Sony Ericsson was at its best, its sales figures were ranking Top Three in European and American markets. However, since 2008, Sony Ericsson almost has opted out of the top list in mobile phone industry.The revolution of iPhone and Android ruined Sony Ericsson’s confidence thoroughly. In addition, the political conflicts and historical factors, such as Diaoyu Island incident, to some extent, have affected the sales in recent years further. Our business analysis emphasizes on the development of Sony Corporation during the period from 2001 to 2011, especially the overseas market expansion in mobile phone industry. We will introduce the development process of Sony and the challenges they faced or will face from three perspectives: business, political and socio-cultural factors.Besides, we, as well as Sony Corporation, concentrate most is how to turn these challenges to the opportunities. Firstly, let us illustrate the organizational structure of Sony Ericsson, especially Sony Ericsson China. The market share of Ericsson has ever ranking no. 3 in global mobile phone market in late 90s of 20 century. Their promoting strategy in Chinese regions made an excellent success because of selecting LIU Dehua and JIN Chengwu as spokesmen. However, Ericsson suffered a huge loss resulting from a mistake in generating strategy in 2000.Meanwhile, Sony mobile phone could scarcely capture the market share, for they were too late to get access to the GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) market. It was in this context that Sony and Ericsson reached a consensus that each of their mobile phone departments sub scribed 50 percent shares to establish a joint venture corporation, that is, Sony Ericsson. They two operated the company together that Ericsson was responsible for technology and quality control while Sony was in charge of the outlook design and sales.The organizational structure is as following. Since 2008, the tablet revolution led by Apple and Android has inflicted a severe impact on Sony Ericsson. In 2011, Sony broke up with Ericsson and purchased the remaining 50 percent shares owned by Ericsson before. Sony kept the mobile phone production department, but their market share cannot be compared to the past. Secondly, the development of Sony mobile phones went through a tough procedure. Let’s briefly review the milestones and look forward to the future.Sony Ericsson sustained high losses in the first two years, until T618 was launched in 2003. T618 was an influential mobile phone type which directly turned SE into profits. And then, to make full use of Sony’s techn ology in Walkman, SE launched W800 in 2005, bringing the concept of music phone to the public. After that, K790 was the first professional camera phone with flashlight, which beyond any other brands at that time. The net income in Sony reached a peak in 2008 with 369,435 yen in millions, while it decreased abruptly in 2009 resulting from the rapid rise of Apple and Android.The cooperation with Android cannot revived SE as the development of X10i and Xperia arc Lt15i could not make ends meet. The continuing losses upset Ericsson and accelerated the termination of the contract between Sony and Ericsson. Therefore, we recommend that Sony should change their marketing strategies to â€Å"low cost, low price† strategy in order to capture the markets in developing countries. In addition, the conclusion of financial annual reports in the past decade is one of the core factors to evaluate the development of Sony. SONY ‘s Net Income(Loss) 2001-2011YearNet Income (Loss) 200116,75 4 200215,310 2003115,519 200488,511 2005163,838 2006123,616 2007126,328 2008369,435 2009-98,938 2010-40,802 2011-259,585 According to the financial figures, it is not hard to track the operation status in Sony for the ten years. 2003, 2008 and 2009 are remarkable turning points and we will demonstrate the business, political and socio-cultural causes in detain as follows. Analysis on Business Aspect In 2000, the subsidiary of famous telecoms giant, the world's third-largest mobile phone company Ericsson, suffered a continuous loss.Ericsson used it as a trigger to start the joint venture company with Japan electronics giant Sony with equal-shared stake in global mobile phone business. Sony Ericsson was established in 2001 as a prestigious international brand for youth. Its global headquarter was located in London which was incompatible with the common thought that Sony Ericsson belongs to Japan . Its international employees were up to 7500 including the research and development talen ts from Europe ,Japan ,China and America.It was a hidden danger for two parties’ division that a considerable number of the technology was mainly transplanted from Sony Company. The new co-operation company combined the Sony’s capability of planning and designing video product, marketing electronic product and promoting brand with the Ericsson’s specialization in mobile telecommunication technology, operators relationship maintaining and network facilities construction. At the beginning two years, Sony Ericsson took debts of 16. 2 billion Swedish grams from Ericsson causing 5 percentage market shares shrunk which made large shareholders have to reinvest 300 million.By virtue of the support of parent companies, Sony Ericsson was booming later and embodying its own style in processing image and wireless telecommunication. In the September of 2003, it first gained profit with introducing an influential upright mobile phone using a few-but-delicate strategy to compe te with corresponds’ mass products. In the next year, the developing trend for Sony Ericsson was irresistible that it opened Valentine’s party cooperated with many outstanding brands to launch its new phones .Its classic and innovate products started to be appealing to various consumption levels in different areas. Starting from the second season of 2005, Sony Ericsson used existed brand Walkman in Sony to create the first bi-brand phone which took over electronic entertainment career of Sony. It made a good performance for increasing both market share and profit . Furthermore, it transplanted Sony Walking and Cyber-shot brand successfully getting a reputation. However, photographing and music functions were commonly imitated by other brands causing Sony Ericsson lose its edge in advanced technology.Some demerits of its products also appeared such as inconvenience of phone download, insufficiency of capability and incommodity of background use. Main reasons for the dec lined performance were that products did not keep up with the rhythm of market and not pay attention to the Smart mobile phone market. Its delicate high-price strategy was in a dilemma for consumers were unwilling to pay a large bill of non-smart cell phone . Meanwhile its internal management was in chaos and the contest for leadership among the executives led to the change of personnel in 2007.Coincidently, an economic crisis happened and changed the consumer’s demand of phone. Sony Ericsson found itself left behind on account of insufficient supply of low-end phone, lack of brand-new products for high-end and shortage of amazing spot in the field of smart phone. Its ever strongest music and photography phones for the mid-market were surpassed by competitors. And it also did not recognize the great demand in Chinese market that it was doomed a tough year for Sony Ericsson . In 2008, Sony intended to purchase the equity of Ericsson which was set aside.Considering the unsatisf ied performance in new products launch and market share for last three years, Sony Ericsson former executive in Silicon Valley Nordberg became the CEO . He abandoned futureless Symbian system and low-end market focusing on the Google’s Android system to reform the company strategy. The decision turned out to be wise that Sony Ericsson launched several excellent Android phone and turned losses into gains gradually. The hesitation between multiple platform system let Sony Ericsson miss a lot of golden chances to boom.It seemed to be an irresistible trend for Sony Ericsson’s ending which will provide space for Sony to shine itself. At the end of October in 2011, Sony officially announced that it offered 1. 05 billion euros to take over the other 50 percent stake Ericsson held. Now Sony Ericsson is a wholly owned subsidiary of Sony and will no longer exist but with a Sony logo. Sony mobile takes advantage of Android platform to develop rapidly and its market share grows gr adually with Xperia series launching. In addition, Sony closed its functional phone production and was dedicated to operate Android smart phone.It can also integrate its huge resources under its name Analysis on Political Aspect Political factor is playing a crucial role in the process of oversea market expansion, for it decides what entrance mode that a company will choose. This section will critically discuss about the political aspect in the way of Sony Company’s internationalization and conduct an analysis on both Sony in China and Europe as a particular example. Political Environment and Company Strengths From 1945 after the World War? international political situation turned to be stable and peace in general, which create a valuable moment for Japan and other countries to develop economy in postwar time. USD-centered International Monetary System provided a comparatively stable condition for international trade. And in 1946, Sony was started from scratch. Inside the cou ntry, on the one hand, with western democratic political system and legal institute built in Japan successfully, Japanese government gradually relaxed the restriction on import and export trading since 1960 in order to push economy grows.On the other hand, economy development brought with living-level to rise. The demand for household appliance rose as well. These are basic national conditions to Sony for its oversea business activities. For Sony itself, firstly it has a clear and specific goal and plan on inland and oversea marketing. Secondly, it insists on high quality product with high price strategy, which establishes the reputation for the brand. Thirdly, enterprise culture attracts customers to build up a brand loyalty to Sony. Political Challenges of Sony’s InternationalizeAs the company did an excellent sales performance in Japan, it decided to stretch its branches into oversea area. In January, 1959, Sony became the new brand name instead of the original company nam e to meet the international trend. Opportunities and threats are both exist on the way of oversea expansion. Here is an analysis on Sony Company’s expansion worldwide and the main challenge of its entrance mode select in different countries and areas, under the effects by the political factors. In November, 1986, Sony set up its first European headquarters Sony Euro in Germany.Before that, it settled the branches respectively in US(1968), Germany(1970) and France(1973) to enlarge the sales revenue and promote its concept of localization around the world. A remarkable example that Sony Company joint venture with Ericsson Company to create a new brand of Sony Ericsson, which both of them holding 50% of the share. And in February, 2012 Sony took over it as sub company via acquisition. For Asian companies, European monetary system provide them a ideal trading base, for they can easily enlarge the sales target in Euro zone.Meanwhile, the main challenges they faced with in European market are serious as well. Exchange rate risk in monetary policy and stability of financial system is uncertainty. Crisis of finance would make a great loss once spread rapidly. Bank industry can be depressing while economy recession, then debts and mortgage challenging the foreign companies. During the last economy crisis, Sony Company reduced the staffrimmer at a number of 10,600 around. Sony first established its branch office in Beijing, China in the year of 1996.Since the company already had a far-spread reputation, brand effect was its strength to open the market of China. And Sony had accumulated fairly enough capital by the end of 20th century after decades of development and expansion. At that time, Chinese government executed positive policy on introducing foreign capital, such as tax preference and concessional debts, which greatly supported Sony to set the branch office in the format of foreign-owned enterprise with confidence. However, there is always an unpredictable and essential factor that may influence its sales in mainland.Challenges came and went following the complex relationship between China and Japanese. Recently, it is reported that sales volume of Sony products in China has an obvious drop-down after the Diaoyu Island Event. Advertising activity was limited in some local TV station, and the public called for boycott of Japanese products. All these made the sales volume of Sony decreasing. In view of this condition, Sony Company continue focusing on product quality and carry out necessary promotion campaign.According to top manager, they insist of positive attitude towards further development in China. Analysis on Socio-Cultural Aspect Socio-culture is one of the crucial factors which will largely affect development of a company. In this part, we will discuss the social-culture problems in Sony. Sony Enterprise Culture As is known to all, Sony Corporation ( ) , commonly referred to as Sony, is a Japanese multinational conglomerate co rporation headquartered in Konan Minato, which established in 1946, Tokyo, Japan.As a Japanese enterprise, it has a wealth of enterprise culture. The first one is that Sony’s founder not only knew the importance of science and technology, but also determined the declaration when the company was founded, â€Å"the company’s aim is to rapidly progress the war a variety of techniques are applied to the national life to†, â€Å"in a timely manner to all universities and research results into products and commodities†. In addition, they also vigorously introduce foreign advanced technology.The second one is that, in order to give full play to the enthusiasm and pioneering spirit, Sony launched a unique personnel system, which allows and encourages people â€Å"volunteered† to apply for various research and development projects according to their interests, hobbies and expertise. Sony believes that those who are not complacent, do not stick to convention s, jump around in the various research groups are most likely to develop a new tech or product. The third one is that, innovation is an important part of Sony’s corporate culture, as well as the key to success.The company founder once said:† Sony’s success is due to the innovation in science, technology, management, marketing and other aspects. † Now Sony develops about 1,000 new products, an average of every working day 4 species. The last one is that, Sony keeps the faith† love and respect each other†. All the employees ranging from director to humble workers are equal. During working time, they all wear the same jackets, just like a harmonious family. Sony’s Executives do not have their own office. They work with others together.So everyone can get on well with each other in a very short time. I think this kind of enterprise culture largely determines the success of Sony. The employee will feel relax in such culture environment instead of feeling nervous. So they can work more efficiently and have more room to innovate. But there are also some discordant parts. As Sony is a Japanese company, they usually start their work early while the Europeans do not like to work before 10. 00 a. m. This will cause â€Å"culture shock† when the Sony approaching to the world market.Adapt to European market In order to foray into the European market, Sony created a joint venture named Sony Ericsson. They use global localization strategy to adapt to the whole world, especially to European market. They established their factory in America, Europe, southeast Asia and so on to realized the localization production. The localization production realized localization management. Sony employed the local talents with high management skills. I think the global localization strategy has its two sides. There are several advantages.The one is, due to this strategy, they will hire the local people. Generally, the local people know more detail. So they can help the enterprise adapt itself to local culture and environment. Secondly, this strategy can ease and avoid political risk, desalinate host country residents for the joint venture of foreign capital impression. On the contrary, this strategy will cause technical secret problems. It is hard to guarantee that not let out any secret though the sharing of technical knowledge. Secondly, there will have some coordination problems between subsidiary and parent company.It seems to be impossible to reconcile the subsidiary’s target with parent company’s target. Finally, this strategy needs more capital and resource. So it will suffer a higher risk. Conclusion Through the analysis we have done, we present the worries about Sony’s future development. Although its shared working place and enthusiastic company culture are impressing that shows the respect of equality and the concern of individuals, the lacking sense of fashionable technology will not sm ooth the development way of Sony.Its high quality control spirit will appeal to the frequent and honest customers, but the imitators and the allure of competitive prices will finally take away Sony’s customer base. In addition, the stressful political relationship between China and Japan will influence the choice of electronic consumption in China so that Sony had better seek a boarder market to maintain its sales and work harder on nurturing its product identify.

Nervous Conditions

In my opinion, Tambu was neither seduced nor brainwashed by the â€Å"Englishness†. Tambu had grown up in an African society  whereby women were fighting for the effects of patriarchal traditions in the history of their culture. Women in Tambu's society  struggled to find their voices in  this male dominated world. Tambu did not want to be like one of these African women, being trapped in traditional roles and could be nothing more but just a good housewife. She realised at a very young age that perhaps the â€Å"Englishness† was her only escape route to a better life. A life that has no more  poverty and women are able  to break out of their traditional roles. Therefore, she was so determined to pursue this  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Englishness† that she would never ever give up  her dream no matter how harsh things had turned out for her. Apart from that, she was also able to see how differently things were for the English educated people like Nhamo and Babamukuru. Both of them were highly respected and had the power to make people listen to them. She wished to be one of them and  knew very clearly that her life could definitely be made better if she was like one  of them. This made her strive even harder for education. Hence, I conclude that Tambu was not seduced or brainwashed by the â€Å"Englishness†. After all, this is the road Tambu had chosen for herself voluntarily, a road that she assumed will promise her well-being, dignity and freedom.

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Of Mice and Men Novel Essay Example for Free

Of Mice and Men Novel Essay The novel was set in California in 1937, on a barley farm. The book is about 2 guys named George and Lennie. They are 2 friends who travels around together going from workplace to work place, earning there keep. To achieve a dream a dream of owning there own piece of land to do whatever they want. There are alot of characters that are lonely in this novel. Candy is one, he is the oldest worker on the farm, and with being a pensioner he is also disabled, but not bye mental, but only has one hand. I think this is why people on the ranch dont really want to know him. Hes old and one-handed. Krooks is another lonely individual on the ranch, hes also one of a kind in the book. Hes the only black person there. Back then it was extremely common for there to be racism, so the fact that a negro was on the ranch made it incredibly hard for him. Curleys wife is another example of one of a kind on the ranch, she is the only woman on the ranch. Her husband curly is full of himself, and is always looking for a fight. So in order to speak to Curleys wife, is just asking for trouble. This doesnt help her, because at first people just think shes a slapper whose trying to get the guys at the ranch in trouble. but she really cant help feeling lonely and wanting a conversation with a human being now and then. Feisty Curly is very strict over her and almost has her imprisoned. A way Steinbeck has done this is because you dont even know her name. the fact that no one wants to get to know her, or just the fact she is kept away from society we dont even know her name. George and Lennie are two guys who are travelling around together, working around wherever they can to earn some money. George is the smaller of the two but the one with the brains. Lennie on the other hand is a big strong lump. The classic type of couple to go travelling around. Lennie isnt just all brute force, he is actually very affectionate he likes soft animals that he can pet. He doesnt quite understand his own power, as you will find out later. George takes care of Lennie through there travels, because Lennie wouldnt survive by himself. Even though Lennie is a burden on George, he doesnt just leave Lennie because he knows that hed be nothing without him. Lennie does respect George though like an older brother or parent, he will listen to everything George says and do it. But everyone else he couldnt give a damn! After a discussion Lennie and George were having about there dream place, George announces to Lennie he knows somewhere like theyve always talked about. Candy over hears as he is still in the room. Now Candy is an old swamper, who spends his time sweeping. He doesnt want to live the rest of his life like this. He interrupts there conversation, to give George a proposition of helping them out with the land. He offered a huge sum of money towards it. Maybe he was also buying himself into a relationship. He also offers to cook clean and other various chores around the place. After he offers the money they cant resist the offer or there dream would stay a dream forever. But I think they knew they could trust Candy as he hasnt got anything to live for or in any way betray the two. Crooks is the only nigger in this story. I think Steinbeck gave a sense that even if you didnt read the description of crooks you would know he was different somehow. He isnt allowed to play cards with the other guys in the bunkhouse, hes not even aloud in the bunkhouse. He has his own room out in the stables, its kind off like theyve just said, now hes out with the other animals. Just because he is a different colour, they just look down on him, like he is an animal. This shows the extent of the racism. But in one way this is the one thing, crook is aloud to have, that is his own personal space. I think the others respect this as they know if they want to come in, then they need his permission first. He is very sour towards white people, as what they have pout him and his family through for generations. So he is very bitter against racists, and white people in general. When Lennie is in the barn, after his pup died, via the over petting from Lennie. Curlys wife enters the scene. They sit and talk, at first Lennie wants to obey Georges orders, but she convinces him to settle down. I think Steinbeck made this scene more than just to put an end to Curlys wife. I think its also to bring the two most lonely people on the ranch together. All the men are outside horseshoeing, apart from Lennie. And Curlys wife just expelled from everyone as per usual. So after talking, they seem to have made friends. When lennie talks about his love of animals and soft things, she says he can touch her hair, because its soft. But now after Lennie touches her hair it has flipped the story right round to the beginning. Lennie not understanding the delicate female emotions. After stroking her hair for abit, she asks him to stop. But Lennie cant resist, and just has to keep stroking her. After this she thinks shes being attacked or assaulted. She gets very panicky, and starts screaming. This gets George very confused and scared. In shock he pleas for her to stop, with his hands around her mouth. This just gets her even more scared and she keeps going. Lennie not knowing what to do, gets angry that shes not listening to him and violently shakes her. Resulting in her breaking her neck. After he realises what hes done. He remembers what George told him, and runs away to the riverside where he was told to go if he caused trouble. Now after everyone had found out Curleys wife was dead George and curly knew there dream was shattered. Theres nothing they could do to save Lennie from a fait ending only with death. Candy seems very thoughtless and selfish, when he asks George George can we still do it? But I think hes just trying to keep his dream alive for a little more. He really needed an outlet from the life he is leading at this time. George must have been quite offended, especially how close he was to Lennie. But they both must have been annoyed. Theyve both just had there dream shattered in a moment. I think Candy wanted to keep it alive just for a little longer.

The Use Of Celebrities In Advertising Cultural Studies Essay

The Use Of Celebrities In Advertising Cultural Studies Essay In my third and last year as an Office Management student I had the assignment of writing a paper for the International Marketing course. I could choose one of the teachers topics or find one myself. I have decided to pick the topic: the differences between Western and Asian culture. This was one of the many subjects offered by the teacher. There is a lot to say about this aspect, which is why I have decided to pick two countries and to dig deeper in their culture, and their point of view regarding to advertisement. The United States and Japan will be discussed in this document and I will add several examples to give a better view on the subject. I have chosen these two countries because they are totally different from each other, what makes it the more or less easy to spot differences. The United States is for me the place to be when it comes to celebrity endorsement. Even though the two cultures are not the same, there is a link and this will be explained in the paper. I expect to receive better understanding of the two cultures but also have a look behind the scenes. I am anxious to learn whether the use of celebrity does have impact on the brand and if that impact is positive for the brand. The paper will be handled in English. I have chosen to do so, because the course and my exam were in English, and the fact that the teacher did an effort to speak in English during the course, I have found it disrespectful not to make the same effort and write this paper in English. Before starting with my main subject I would like to explain some basic things. The term celebrity is widely used for every person that comes on TV. But for companies and brands, they are more than that. Furthermore I will start with the use of celebrity, mainly in the States and tackle the marketing strategy a little bit. My paper consists of two countries, that is why Japan will come next. The differences between these two countries will be tackled by the end along with some examples. A celebrity isà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Also called a celeb and it is a person that is generally recognized in a society or a culture. People can become famous in different ways: through their profession, appearances in the mass media, beauty and even crime. Through mass media, starting in the 19th and 20th century, celebrities are known in a relatively short time nationally or internationally. This can sometimes occur very fast. Like Neil Armstrong being the first man walking over/on the moon in 1969, got famous in a nick of time. Celebrities appear in public in a different way, you and me can walk on the street unnoticed without anybody carrying. For celebs it is the other way around, they are walking advertising poles. From head to toe fans analyse the clothes and brands they are wearing. Furthermore they appear in public when fulfilling their jobs, like a tennis player in front of an audience. And also while attending events, like the Academy Awards, premieres of movies, etcà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The news, fashion magazines and even tabloids provide second source information concerning their private life. Besides doing what they do, they also endorse a brand, and act as spokespeople in advertising and on events to promote their brand. Or should I say the brand they work for. The most logical question is does this celebrity endorsement do some good to the brand? A study of Till, Stanley, Priluck in 2008 explains us that celebrity endorsement is used in marketing, because it is believed that the consumers perception of the product improves. According to McCracken (1989) a celebrity endorser is an individual who has gained public awareness and uses this awareness in commercials and advertisements on behalf of consumer products. The use of celebrities in advertising: the States When Nike started collaborating with golf icon Tiger Woods, there was a lot of scepticism about the introduction of NIKE to the golf market.  Indeed, the image of NIKE was not consistent with the image of the elite sport of golf.  It is through the use of Tiger Woods in the marketing strategy that NIKE could successfully position itself in the golf market. Nike is one of the many multinationals which makes use of celebrity endorsers in its marketing strategy. Other famous brands that call upon a celebrity to endorse are Pepsi with David Beckham. The famous advertising commercials of Nepresso where we admire a charismatic George Clooney. For companies it is very interesting to make use of celebrity endorsers since advertisements with celebrities, creates more attention than ads or commercials without celebrities.   The celebrity endorser is not necessarily an actor or a movie star, there may for example also be considered athletes, musicians, artists and politicians. Although he passed away a long time ago, in this ad we see one of the United States most popular president, John F. Kennedy for an Omega advertising. However it is not so that celebrity endorsement guarantees success.  The success of using this marketing strategy depends on the values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹that the celebrity endorser gives to the product.  It is even possible that the celebritys own image and values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹can be transferred to the product. Not only theory but also practice has shown us that the use of celebrities generates a lot of publicity. Yet these endorsements can cost a lot of money to companies. For instance Venus Williams has signed a five-year contract worth 40 million dollars, to promote and endorse Reebok. Back in the days when he was the most popular athlete in the World, Michael Jordan had signed a contract for 20 million dollars with NIKE. This proved to be very lucrative for Nike, because the AIR Jordan was for a long time very famous and every teen on the block bought the shoe. All of these celebrities gain more from endorsement contracts than from the sport they practice. That is why celebrity endorsements increase every year. In 2007, celebrities in the United States were used in 25% of all TV commercials. What is marketing communication? A company has many audiences. Consumers and other customers are only a small part of the target groups. Marketing communication can be described as getting in touch with trade and or consumers to influence their knowledge, attitudes and behaviour in a direction that is favourable for the marketing policy. The different marketing communication tools are used to influence positively the choices of the (potential) consumers. These marketing tools can be deployed at different levels. A distinction is made between the cognitive, affective and conative phase. Within the cognitive phase, the goal is to familiarize the customer with the product or the company. The affective phase is aimed at the emotions. Within this phase the customer needs to develop emotions and feelings towards the product or the company. The conative and affective phase can often be combined. In the conative stage, the customer actually makes a purchase. It is obvious that all companies aim to fulfil the last phase. A little bit of marketing strategy In this part of the paper I will dig a little bit deeper in the marketing strategy. The celebrity needs to match the brand, they are not randomly chosen by companies, just for fun. It is a whole strategy and a detailed process that comes along. I will also talk about what is important to guarantee the success of the brand and on what companies focus when choosing their celebrities. It can be said that celebrity endorsement is widely used because research indicates that the impact of celebrity endorsement is a positive investment in the marketing of a brand. However, it is not always successful. It is important for companies that they use celebrities in an efficient way in their strategy. The question is whether celebrity endorsement is the way to go when introducing new products into the market. Research indicates that about half of the marketing budget is spent on marketing when launching new products. Companies are willing to spend a lot of money, because on average 40% of product launches fail. Because so much money is spent on the marketing of new products, there is a greater chance that many companies will opt for celebrities in their commercials and ads (advertisements). This is one of the most expensive options within marketing communications. The focus is therefore on the impact of celebrity endorsement in marketing strategies of new products. With the introduction of new products, consumer uncertainty is relatively higher than the existing products. This consumer uncertainty should be removed with a good marketing policy. With high consumer uncertainty, new products should be brought more to the attention of consumers than already existing products. So that the consumers uncertainty is no longer present. It may also be noted that consumers dealing with new products still have no awareness of the product and thus no positive attitude is yet developed. This is necessary because it leads to purchase intent. Two dimensions: Attractiveness and credibility If companies want their brand to be successful throughout the help of a celebrity, there are two dimensions that they must take into account. The two dimensions of interest are namely the attractiveness and credibility of the celebrity. Several studies indicate that these two dimensions may be crucial for the success of celebrity endorsement in marketing strategy. In addition to these dimensions they also take a look at the match-up principle and the ability to use multiple celebrities in an add or advertisement. The match-up principle will be treated in this paper as this is a generally accepted principle in the choice of celebrity endorsement. Attractiveness of the celebrity The first dimension is to take into account the attractiveness of the celebrity. If an attractive celebrity is used, it is more likely that awareness is created among the target audience than when using an unattractive celebrity. This awareness is eventually to be transformed into a positive attitude of the brand. The attractiveness of the celebrity has namely a positive effect on the attitude of consumers towards the brand or product advertising .The dimension attractiveness of the celebrity is formed by the physical appearance, intelligence, athletic ability and the lifestyle of the celebrity. Based on these factors the company should decide which celebrity is suitable for his or her product or brand. Credibility of the celebrity The second dimension concerns the credibility of the celebrity. Credibility is divided into two factors: expertise and trustworthiness. Expertise of the celebrity is perceived by consumers on the basis of the allegations that the celebrity is doing in advertising. Reliability, however, is perceived as to whether the celebrity can achieve the results from the advertising or ad in his real life. Research shows that companies with good credibility factors interact within the advertising, as the celebrities generally are regarded as credible. This is crucial because the credibility of the celebrity can affect the opinions, attitudes and behaviour of the target group. The match-up principle The success of the collaboration between celebrity and the brand or product depends to a large extent on the match-up principle. The match-up basically revolves around the congruence (being suitable and appropriate) between the celebrity and the brand or product. With congruence, I mean the consistency between the characteristics of the celebrity and the product attributes. This is particularly important because the celebrity can convey its values on the product or brand without changing the product or brand image. A good match-up creates a more positive attitude of the consumers. I personally hate to see ads that use celebrities when it is obvious that the celebrity does not match the brand at all. To explain the match-up principle better, I will briefly discuss the three phases: Phase 1: In this stage, a number of values are associated with the celebrity. These values occur on the basis of the celebs appearances in the (mass) media. Consumers understand the significance and reflect it on the celebrity. Phase 2: In this phase, the values and image of the celebrity are associated with the product, through an official endorsement. Phase 3: During this phase, the values, by working with the brand or product, clearly belong to the consumer. Because the consumers associate the values of the celebrity with the values of the product they will proceed to purchase and consume the product. Multiple celebrities in an advertising or promotional One way to merge the above factors is the use of several celebrities in an advertisement or promotion. The company must then choose celebrities who complement each other within the advertising or ad. This could be, for example, the attractiveness of the celebrities chosen for an athlete and someone with an intelligent mind. To ensure credibility, a knowledgeable person and a trustworthy person can be used. Gillette, for example, is a company that applies several celebrities in its ads by using Roger Federer, Thierry Henry and Tiger Woods. An important argument for the choice of several celebrities in the marketing of a company, in these ways different audiences can be reached on the basis of a celebrity who fits in this group. When using multiple celebrities, multiple values will be linked to the product. The risks of celebrity endorsements Although there are examples that indicate that celebrity endorsement can be a good idea, there are the necessary risks. When it is assumed that all conditions of the right person for the right product are satisfied, there are two points to worry about. The greatest risk is the celebrity itself. Celebrity branding is all about transferring the value of a person on a product. The two concerns are: How long will the fame remain, and can the celebrity retain its status? The second concern is the life of celebrity, his personal integrity. If he is embroiled in a scandal, that could destroy the brand. Before Michael Jackson ended in a scandal, he had a successful deal with Pepsi. Naturally Pepsi had to stop the contract in order to prevent damage to the brand. Also O.J. Simpson was once the face of a car rental company. After the accusations of the murder of his wife, his contract was also stopped. It is very bad for a brand to be associated with an alleged murderer or paedophile. Although there are brands that hire intentionally stars with a wrong image, this is a risky step. Pepsi made again a wrong decision, by taking this risk to use hip-hop star Ludacris in its campaigns. Ludacris disrespectful attitude and his rap songs full with cursing did not match-up with the brand. After a campaign was started by a conservative politician against this endorsement, Pepsi was forced by public pressure to stop the deal with Ludacris. Although one should avoid bad publicity, it is a fact that on the international market celebrity endorsements are very suitable to create a distinctive brand. That the rules of celebrity endorsement in Japan differ from those of the West is largely due to the difference in culture, more on that later. Brands must be careful with the choices they make. When they choose a celebrity with the right personality traits, these characteristics will also be awarded to the brand and the brand will take advantage from it. If the wrong person is chosen his or her personality traits will be awarded to the brand causing the end of the brand. Very well accepted and attractive super stars like Bruce Willis and Whitney Houston failed in turning their endorsements into success. Simply assuming that a person just has to be famous to represent a brand is incorrect. A considerable number of failures prove the opposite. In the figure below you can see some of the endorsements that turned out to be a success or a failure. Lets go Asian: Japan and its celebrity endorsement In East Asian countries like Japan and South Korea, many celebrities are used in advertising. In Japan, 70 % of TV commercials use a celebrity from the sports, music, film, and fashion or entertainment business. Celebrities are used as endorsers with a statement about the quality of the product / brand or are shown only in relation to the brand /product. The idea is that the values and associations of the celebrity will be transferred to the brand and the brand by the user. Moreover, it is a form of product differentiation as other awards from competing brands is not possible or desirable. But why is the use of celebrities in Japan so much greater than in the United States and Europe? In Japan they do not only use Western and Japanese celebrities, but also talents. These are young Japanese who are on their way to the top in the worlds of fashion, music, film and entertainment. Advertising for these talents is their way to fame. Japanese advertising does not only use the reputation and associations of established celebrities, but also creates celebrities. And this goes a step further than the ads in the States. Japanese talents are normal people like you and me. They are slightly good looking, pretty much the girl or boy next door. They form a peer group with which one can easily identify. In a collectivist culture belonging to a group or identifying with that group is very important. In Japanese advertising values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹related to face and harmony lead to an indirect communication style. They feel uncomfortable with a commercial that takes that emphasise on situations or facts. A direct approach is seen as an insult to the intelligence of the consumer. The goal of advertising in the Japanese ads is to make the consumer your friend, to win his trust and respect. This goal can be achieved by entertaining the audience. Identification of the brand, the company name or product in the commercial is less important than the pleasant voices of consumers. Japanese advertisers generally use much of the time in the commercial for building trust, understanding and dependence. The result is a kind of advertising that appeals to the imagination and few to the facts. Advertising show usually no product attributes, the fun of advertising is more important. In Japanese commercials you see serenity, and nature symbols. The tone of voice is indirect, subtle, with lots of symbolism. Comparative advertising is a confrontation and is therefore seen as denigrating the competition. This is in conflict with the Asian value of harmony. The style and manner of presentation is important. A pretty picture, a story or a poem can be important parts of the advertisement. Values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹and appeals found in their advertising are respect for elders. The relationship of man with nature / the unity with nature is often the subject of advertising. Japanese are crazy about celebrities. A product is often associated with celebrities, who often represent the target. If Western models, celebrities or situat ions are used, it is only as a symbol of prestige and status: they are not intended to illustrate the western values. In Japan, a part of television and popular culture is strongly linked to the entertainment world. Songs are often especially composed for use in commercials. Differences between Western and Asian cultures There are several cultural differences that may explain the use of celebrities. While the American culture is characterized by individualism, in Japan it is more the collectivist culture. In a collectivist culture they emphasize on conformity, adaptation and obedience. We, the European and American see this as negative values, but in Japan, this is well appreciated. Celebrities fit better in a collectivist than an individualist culture. In Japan they highly look up to celebrities, especially a Western celebrity. You will also see many Western celebrities in Japanese advertising, which I will explain later on. The power distance is quite large. The statements of celebrities are followed uncritically because they are not famous for nothing. Their values rays on the brand that they support, and also on the user of that brand. Power distance and individualism-collectivism are the key explanations for the difference between East Asian and Western countries. These are two of the four Hofst ede dimensions of culture. For the other two dimensions (uncertainty avoidance and masculine-feminine) there is no large difference, even though Japan is the most masculine country in the world. In a masculine country performance and success are central, in a feminine country caring for others and quality of life is more important. Advertising is strongly influenced by culture, especially in comparisons between East Asia, Europe and North America. But even between Asian countries there are cultural differences. Some campaigns may be used in several countries, but in most cases adaptation is necessary to make an effective campaign. And in many cases adaptation is inadequate and separate campaigns must be developed for each country taking into account the national culture. View of Western culture on celebrity endorsement Celebrities and marketing go well together. There is indeed a lot of money to distribute. A study of GMI revealed that consumers, especially in the Western world are almost insensitive to the advertisements with celebrities. The celebrity endorsement, according to the agency GMI might not be as effective as many believe. In certain western markets, the strategy used did not succeed to increase the value of the product nor to persuade the consumer to buy the product The researchers note that the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement in promoting brands depends on the local culture. In the Western world they are the most indifferently towards the use of celebrities in advertising, tells GMI. In the United States 79% of the respondents indicated that a celebrity has no effect on the way they think about a product. Only 13% admitted that through celebrity endorsement the value of the brand increases. But in Japan, it is a completely different situation, said GMI. In Japan, 60% thinks that celebrities give a product more value. The study also shows that consumer find other techniques such as free samples, mouth-to-mouth are more efficient than celebrity endorsements. These techniques influence their buying behaviour slightly more. In the United States 34% of the consumers think this way. In Japan, 29% of those surveyed found advertising after the free samples the most efficient way to convert to a purchase. It took word-of-mouth advertising only 12%. Celebrity endorsement has proved most successful, implying that celebrities played an important role in their purchasing decision. Global media can create global stars. But consumers are much more sophisticated and less inclined to swallow simple, uniform marketing messages. The great indifference of consumers in the West may even be a sign that celebrity endorsement can have the opposite effect and repel consumers. American finest celebrities head to Japan Many American stars earn large sums of money by linking themselves to brands as a spokesperson by recommending certain products. Others appear nowhere in advertising because they do not want their fans to think they are selling out. However, many of these stars cannot resist the temptation to go abroad and appear in commercials and ads. Nowhere is this truer than in Japan. Even the richest and most famous people do not just say no to advertisers who pay them one to three million U.S. dollars for a couple of hours of work. And this is for a commercial that lasts 15 to 20 seconds. Mega stars like Meg Ryan, Demi Moore, Brad Pitt and Harrison Ford received millions to appear in a Japanese commercial. Meg Ryan makes recommendations for cosmetics and tea, Brad Pitt promotes tins of coffee and jeans, and Demi Moore tries to persuade the Japanese audience to purchase protein drinks. Ford received several millions to appear shirtless on ads and commercials for Kirin Beer (see below). Sometime s stars are even forced to change their image and personality to better suit the style of advertising, this is needed to fit the Japanese companies. Even the Japanese public has a different flavour than people in the West are used to have. What we, in Europe and the U.S., perceive as cheap is seen in Japan as a very normal and effective way to advertise. In a commercial for shampoo, famous actor Dennis Hopper appeared in a bathtub player with a rubber duck. There are several reasons why Japanese companies are willing to pay large amounts for these stars. Many Japanese are fascinated by the American culture and American stars. It also gives a brand an American international star status. In Japanese commercials, style and atmosphere are more important than dull product information and testimonials. Japanese are very sensitive to entertainment. Because a commercial in Japan only last 15 seconds, a western star is easily recognized and the attention of the viewer is directly captured, w hich is more worth than money. American film studios also encourage celebrities to appear in Japanese commercial lay. In this way it is easier for American films to attract the Asian population. Often the release of a new film and the appearance of the star of this film in Japanese ads fall together. While many stars go abroad for advertising, they all try to protect their image at home. There are even clauses in the contracts stating that the commercial must not be shown outside of Japan and sometimes even be discussed. With the growth of the Internet it is possible that stars like Arnold Schwarzenegger secrecy about their advertising activities are likely to remain unnoticed for the American public. Above you have just read why Japanese are less picky when it comes to match-up than for example in America. Also it seems that the credibility aspect is less of an issue in Japan. If you are a celebrity, youre in Japan, by definition, credible, match up or not. Yet it is true that these endorsements in Japan are inde ed profitable. The public in Japan is in the long term a lot more loyal than the audience in the West. If a celebrity in Japan is loved, this will remain even if the celebrity has disappeared from the spotlight. The website japander.com made an index with all of American celebrities that appear in Japanese advertising. Conclusion I can now say with proud that I have chosen the right countries to tackle this difficult but at the same time interesting topic. I am sure that many students would think that it is easy to discuss this subject, because there is a lot of information on the internet and in books. Well I can tell them that a lot of information makes it harder to write something, because it is up to the writer to eliminate unnecessary information and to write in a way that is readers friendly. My hardest task was to make sure that I removed what is not relevant and to dig deeper in the part that was relevant. Thanks to experienced authors such as Grant McCracken, Stanley and many others it became easier for me to understand what I was writing about. Their view on culture and celebrities and the way they explain it was a relief to me. This paper taught me that celebrities take a big bite in the budget of a company. Nevertheless this kind of technique in marketing is increasing and will remain because stud y does show us that it is very profitable for a brand to use a celebrity. Even though in Japan they do not strictly follow the rule of match-up, I strongly believe that a match-up is needed to make an advertisement successful. Commercials, advertisements and endorsements where the celebrity has got absolutely nothing to do with the product is for me a no go. And in that match-up, according to me the most important aspect is credibility. I am not the first one to go and buy a product once a celebrity tells me to do so, but I could slightly get more interested in the brand if I notice a strong credibility in the ad. After reading several studies, information and documents I can conclude that the use of celebrities, when respecting the two dimensions I discussed in the paper, could have a very positive impact on the brand and the reputation of the company. I know I am supposed to thank in the beginning, but I have decided to do it know. I rather want the teacher to read my paper, so she could notice for herself what I am capable of, before I thank her for the support and counseling throughout the school year. Sources BOOKS Margolis J., Garrigan P., Guerrillamarketing voor dummies, 2008, Pearson Education Benelux, Amsterdam Kotler P., Marketing: de essentie, 2009, Pearson Education Benelux, Amsterdam De Mooij M., Wereldmerken : hoe reclame omgaat met cultuurverschillen, 1998, Alphen aan den Rijn, Samson WEBSITES Joyce Huijsman, Humor doesnttraval: Frank Sinatra spaghetti, (http://joycehuijsman.wordpress.com/2011/09/28/frank-sinatra-spaghetti/) University of Texas at Austin, Celebrity Advertising in Japan and Korea Doing it the Asian Way, PDF, (http://www.perfspot.com/docs/doc.asp?id=110674) The free library, Cultural differences in television celebrity use in the United States and Lebanon, (http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Cultural+differences+in+television+celebrity+use+in+the+United+States-a0208956138) Fred van Raaij, Beroemdheden en cultuur, (http://www.swocc.nl/column/beroemdheden-en-cultuur.php) Managing21, Westerling ongevoelig voor beroemdheden?, (http://managing21.skynetblogs.be/archive/2005/01/24/westerling-ongevoelig-voor-beroemdheden.html) McCann People, Sterren in reclame verleiden niet altijd, (http://mccannpeople.wordpress.com/2009/03/31/sterren-in-reclame-verleiden-niet-altijd/) The Pop history dig; JFK, Pitchman?, (http://www.pophistorydig.com/?tag=politicians-advertising) Colombia Business School, Celebrities impact on branding, PDF, (http://worldlywriter.com/images/portfolio/Proposals/Celebrity_Branding.pdf) Martin Stam, De invloed van celebritiyendorsement in de marketingcommunicatie strategie van nieuwe producten, PDF, (http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=116167) Bart Sikkema, Who will be your next celebrity endorser?, PDF, (http://essay.utwente.nl/58467/1/scriptie_B_Sikkema.pdf) Japander, Celebrity advertising, (http://www.japander.com) IMAGES All of the images were copied from Google (www.google.com) à £Ã†â€™Ã‚ Ãƒ £Ã†â€™Ã‚ ªÃƒ £Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ £Ã†â€™Ã†â€™Ãƒ £Ã†â€™Ã¢â‚¬ ° International Marketing Celebrity endorsement Hollywood

Regulation of Gastric Acid Secretion

Regulation of Gastric Acid Secretion The stomach is a J-shaped enlargement of the gastrointestinal tract just lies below the diaphragm; the digestive tube dilates into an elongated pouchlike structure, the size of which varies according to several factors, notably the amount of distention. For sometime after a meal, the stomach is enlarged because of distention of its walls, but, as food leaves, the walls partially collapse, leaving the organ about the size of a large sausage. In adults the stomach usually holds a volume upto 1.0 to 1.5L. ANATOMY OF STOMACH 1.1.1 Divisions of the stomach: The fundus, body and the pylorus are the three divisions of the stomach. The fundus is the enlargement portion of the left and above opening of the oesophagus into the stomach. The body is the central part of the stomach, and the pylorus is its lower portion. 1.1.2 Curves of the stomach: The curve formed by the upper right surface of the stomach is known as the lesser curvature; the curve formed by the lower left surface is known as the greater curvature. 1.1.3 Sphincter muscles: Sphincter muscles guard both stomach openings. A sphincter muscle consists of circular fibres so arranged that there is an opening in the centre of them (like the hole in a doughnut) when they are relaxed and no opening when they are contracted. The cardiac sphincter controls the opening of the oesophagus into the stomach, and the pyloric sphincter controls the opening from the pyloric portion of the stomach into the first part of the small intestine. 1.1.4 Stomach wall: Gastric mucosa The epithelial lining of the stomach is thrown into folds, called rugae, and marked by depressions called gastric pits. Numerous coiled tubular- type glands, gastric glands, are found below the level of the pits, particularly in the fundus and body of the stomach. The glands secrete most of the gastric juice, a mucous fluid containing digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid. 1.1.5 Functions of the stomach: The stomach carries on the following the functions: It serves as a reservoir, storing food until it can be partially digested and moved further along the gastrointestinal tract. It secretes gastric juice, containing acid and enzymes, to aid in the digestion of food. It carries on the limited amount of absorption of some water, alcohol, and certain drugs. It produces the hormone gastrin, which helps regulation of digestive functions. It helps to protect the body by destroying pathogenic bacteria swallowed with food or with mucous from the respiratory tract. 1.2 Regulation of gastric acid secretion: The mechanisms operating at the gastric parietal cells as summarized in the above figure. The terminal enzyme H+K+ATPase (proton pump) which secretes H+ ions in the apical canaliculi of parietal cells can be activated by histamine, Ach and gastrin acting via their own receptors located on the basolateral membrane of these cells.Out of the three physiological secretagogues, histamine, acting through H2 receptors, plays the dominant role, because the other two, gastrin and Ach act partly directly by releasing histamine from paracrine enterochromaffin like cells called histaminocytes located in the oxyntic glands. While H2 receptors activate H+K+ATPase by generating cAMP, muscarinic and gastrin receptors appear to function through the phospholipaseC -IP3-DAG pathway that mobilizes intracellular Ca+. The cAMP mediated proton pump activation also involves Ca+. The secretomotor response to gastrin and cholinergic agonists is expressed fully only in the presence of cAMP generated by H2 acti vation. As such, histamine participates in the acid response to gastrin and Ach at more than one levels, and H2 antagonists suppress not only histamine but also Ach, pentagastrin and in fact any gastric acid secretory stimulus. Gastrin is secreted from the antrum in response to rise in antral pH, food constituents and vagally mediated reflexes. The dominant muscarinic receptor mediating vagal responses is of M1 subtype. Its location on the ganglion cells of the intramural plexuses has been confirmed. The parietal cell muscarinic receptor is of the M2 subtype but the subtype of muscarinic receptor on histaminocytes has not been defined. Vagus releases Ach in dose proximity to histaminocytes and gastrin secreting cells, but apparently at a distance from the parietal cells. Prostaglandins have been ascribed a cytoprotective role in the gastric mucosa by augmenting mucus and bicarbonate secretion, as well as other actions. PGE2, produced by gastric mucosa, inhibits acid secretion by opposing cAMP generation and gastrin release. CONTROL OF GASTRIC ACID IN STOMACH: 1.3 Peptic Ulcer Peptic ulcers disease refers to a group of disorders characterized by circumscribed lesions of the mucosa of the upper gastrointestinal tract (especially of the stomach and duodenum). The lesions occur in regions exposed to gastric juices. When the stomachs natural protections from acid stop working ulcers will occur. Duodenal ulcers almost always develop in the duodenal bulb (the first few centimetres of the duodenum). A few, however, arise between the bulb and the ampulla. Gastric ulcers form most commonly in the antrum or at the antral-fundal junction. Nearly 80 % of peptic ulcers are duodenal the others are gastric ulcers. Most duodenal ulcers appear in people between ages 20 and 50 years, while gastric ulcer usually occurs between ages 45 and 55 years. Duodenal ulcer is twice as common in men as in women and gastric ulcers affect men and women equally. Approximately 10 to 20 % of gastric ulcer patients also have a concurrent duodenal ulcer. Gastric ulcer is often a chronic disease and may persist for 10 to 20 years characterized by repeated episodes of healing and re-exacerbation. Peptic ulcers occur when there is an imbalance between offensive factors and defensive mucosal factors (Goel and Bhattacharya, 1991). Ulceration in the mucosa can be because of either breakdown of mucosa with the development of surface defects or failure of restitution of mucosal integrity resulting in retardation or failure of healing of the ulcers. No apparent causal factor is sufficiently uniquely associated with peptic ulcers to warrant unequivocal implication in pathogenesis of the ulceration. The mechanism of defensive action consists of humoral, functional and neuronal factors. All these factors are responsible for the mucosal protection. The precise biochemical changes during ulcer generation are not clear yet, although various hypotheses have been proposed from time to time. Increased gastric motility, vagal over activity, mast cell degranulation decreased gastric mucosal blood flow and decreased prostaglandin level during stress condition is thought to be involved in ulcer generation. Similarly role of oxygen derived free radicals have been shown to play a role in experimental gastric damage induced by ischemia and reperfusion, hemorrhagic shock and ethanol administration. Helicobacter pylori a pathogen is now known to be the most common and important causes of gastric ulcer in humans (Davies et al., 1994), exhibits active inflammation with epithelial damage accompanied by neutrophil migration. Although the currently used drugs for ulceration are broadly classified into two, those that decrease or counter increase in acid-pepsin secretion and those that afford cytoprotection by virtue of their effects on mucosal defensive factors. Ulcer treatment can be carried out by reducing the action of aggravating factors. Since gastric acid is one of the major aggressive factor contributing to peptic ulcer disease, the reduction of gastric acid either by surgical or pharmacological intervention has been used to promote ulcer healing. However, not all patients, with gastric or duodenal ulcer have high acid secretion. In fact, only 30%-40% of cases with duodenal ulcer have hypersecretion of gastric acid and, in patients with gastric ulcer, acid secretion is either normal or low (Gupta et al., 1980). In these cases, decreased mucosal resistance might be the dominant factor. The neutralization of gastric acid can be done by antacid administration, but their effectiveness is only for a brief period. Muscarinic antagonists such as pirenzepine or telenzepine are effective inhibitors of acid production. The histamine H2-receptor antagonists (H2RA) like cimetidine, ranitidine, famotidine etc. act as potent inhibitors of acid secretion. Complete inhibition of parietal cells acid secretion by receptor antagonist is difficult because of complexity of known receptors on parietal cells and a variety of second messenger signaling system coupled to these receptors, which involve adenylate cyclase coupled with histamine receptor and intracellular Ca+2 with acetylcholine receptors. Thus, the most successful and desirable therapy is to inhibit the enzyme responsible for acid secretion. Moreover, H2RA have been reported to have some adverse reactions ranging from gastric carcinoid to tolerance and rebound acid secretion. Inhibition of gastric H+/K+ -ATPase of the pariet al cell by drugs such as by proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) like omeprazole, lansoprazole, timoprazole, etc. has been shown to be effective in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease. However, such agents irreversibly inactivate the ATPase and the return of acid secretion following such inhibition requires de novo synthesis of new pump. Although these drugs have brought about remarkable changes in ulcer therapy, the efficiency of these drugs is still debatable. Reports on clinical evaluation of these drugs shows that there are incidences of relapses and adverse effects and danger of drug interactions during ulcer therapy. Further, in the developing countries, like India, most of the population is living in rural areas and depending on their indigenous system of drugs because of expensive modern treatment. Hence, the search for an ideal anti-ulcer drug continues and has also been extended to herbal drugs in search for new and novel molecules, which afford better protection, decrease the incidence of relapse and decrease the cost of the treatment. Of late the search for new safe alternative drugs have rekindled the interest in cytoprotective drugs, which protects the mucosal layer from inducing agents. Cytoprotection has been defined as the ability of pharmacological agents-originally prostaglandins to prevent or reduce gastric, duodenal, or intestinal mucosal injury by mechanisms other than inhibition of gastric acid secretion. Although few drugs like sucralfate and prostaglandin analogs are recognized as cytoprotective agents (Vergin and Kori-Lindner, 1990), many natural drugs have been reported to posses this activity viz. plantain banana (Musa sapientum var Paradisiaca), Tectona grandis, Azadirachta indica and rasayana drugs like Centella asiatica, Asparagus racemosus, Convolvulus pluricaulis, Emblica officinalis, Bacopa monniera and Withania somnifera, etc. (Goel and Sairam , 2002). India is one of the country rich in medicinal plants which were used by our ancestors. Traditionally, plants were used as medicine in a traditional way such as Ayurveda, Naturopathy, Siddha and Unani. After knowing the used of plants in medicine, synthetic drugs were now started replacing by herbal products. Humans have used plant materials since prehistoric times and in some countries such as China documentary evidence shows that herbal medicines have been used for at least 7000 years. In Europe there is a rich history in the use of herbal medicines and these have been well documented in medieval herbals such as Culpepers and Gerards materia medica. Nowadays many countries are having interest in using Indian medicinal plants as it can cure many diseases and other purposes. Herbal medicines differ from synthetic drugs in several attributes. Though, herbal medicines are mixed chemical compounds, all have not been isolated, characterized and quantified. When an extract of a plant or a compound isolated from the plant has to be clinically evaluated for a therapeutic effect not originally described in the texts of traditional systems or, the method of preparation is different, it has to be treated as a new substances or new chemical entity. The same type of acute, subacute and chronic toxicity data has to be generated. Majority of medicinal herbs contain dozens of different compounds, often of great complexity, flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, alkaloids, mucilage, tannins, polysaccharides, etc., that buffer, modulates and modify the effect of any active principles. Study after study has shown that administering of isolated purified constituents of the whole or part of the plant cannot mimic effects produced by extracts of same part of the plant. 1.3.1 Pathophysiology of Peptic Ulcer Peptic ulcer generally occurs when aggravating factors are higher than defensive mucosal factors(Goel Bhattacharya, 1991). The peptic ulcer can be treated by reducing the activity of aggravating factors thereby increasing the activity of defensive factors. H. Pylori H.Pyloric is a Gram -ve spiral-shaped bacterium. H.Pyloric is the most common cause of non-NASID associated peptic ulcer disease. H.Pyloric has been found in the gastric antrum of a significant number of patients with duodenal ulcers and gastric ulcers. H.Pyloric lives in the acidic environment of the stomach. The initial infection is transmitted by the oral route. H.Pyloric attaches to adhesion molecules on the surface of gastric epithelial cells. In the duodenum, H.Pyloric attaches only to areas containing gastric epithelial cell that have arisen as a result of excess and damage to the duodenal mucosa. H.Pyloric is able to live in such a hostile environment partly because of its production of the enzyme increase, which converts urea to ammonia. The ammonia buffers the H+ and forms ammonia OH creating an alkaline cloud around the bacteria and protecting it from the acidic environment of the stomach. It causes inflammation and epithelial cell damage (Golan, and Arman). Nsaids More than 100, 000 patients are hospitalised each year for NSAID-associated gastro-intestinal complications and gastrointestinal bleeding has a 5% to 10% mortality rate in these patients. NSAID-associated gastrointestinal damage is attributable to both topical injury and systemise effects of the NSAID. Most NSAIDS are weak organic acids. In the acidic environment of the stomach, these drugs are neutral components that can cross the plasma membrane and enter gastric epithelial cells. In the neutral intracellular environment, the drugs are recognized and trapped. The resulting intracellular damage is responsible for the local gastrointestinal injury associated with NSAID use. Gastric acid secretion Inhibition of cycloxygenase prostaglandins Bicarbonate/ Mucous Production Blood flow NSAIDS Neutrophil adherence Mucosal dama- Expression of intercellular vascular endothelial ge due to neutro- Adhesion molecules in gastric cells phil free radicals Vascular endothelium and proteases. Acid hypersecretion Acid hypersection is an important causative factor in some patients with peptic ulcer disease. Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome(Z-E-S)are two clinical examples in which hyperacidity leads to peptic ulcer disease. In Z-E-S, a gastrin-recreting tumor of the non-beta cells of the endrocrine pancrease lead to increased acid secretion. In lusting ulcer, seen in patients with reverse head injuries, heightened vagaltone causes gastric hyperacidity. Figure is showing the interactions among an enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cell that secretes histamine, a parietal cell that secretes acid, and a superficial epithelial cell that secretes cytoprotective mucus and bicarbonate. Physiological pathways, shown in solid black, may be stimulatory (+) or inhibitory (-). 1 and 3 indicate possible inputs from postganglionic cholinergic fibres, while 2 shows neural input from the vagus nerve. Physiological agonists and their respective membrane receptors include acetylcholine (ACh), muscarinic (M), and nicotinic (N) receptors; gastrin, cholecystokinin receptor 2 (CCK2); histamine (HIST), H2 receptor; and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), EP3 receptor. Drug actions are indicated by dashed lines. A blue X indicates targets of pharmacological antagonism. A light blue dashed arrow indicates a drug action that mimics or enhances a physiological pathway. Shown in blue are drugs used to treat acid-peptic disorders. NSAIDs are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and are ulcerogenic. 1.4 Gastrointestinal Motility: Laxatives are drugs that either accelerate faecal passage or decrease faecal consistency. They work by promoting one or more of the mechanisms that cause diarrhoea. Because of the wide availability and marketing of OTC laxatives, there is a potential that an appropriate diagnosis will not be sought (Jahangir moini). Rarely in medicine is there an absolute indication for the use of laxatives. A high fibre, well-balanced diet rich in fruits and vegetables supplemented by bran should be enough to normalize bowel function. The fear of autointoxication and the constant concern of many patients regarding the frequency and quality of bowel movement make laxatives one of the most popular over the counter drugs in the market with serious potential for user abuse. Accepted indications for laxatives and stool softeners include preparation for diagnostic colonic examination (Barium enema, colonoscopy: treatment of anorectal disorders) and prevention of hepatic encephalopathy (Smith and Reynard). Fibre is defined as the undigested residue of fruits, vegetables, and other foods of plant origin after digestion by the human GI enzymes. Fibres water holding capacity is the ability of the fibre to hold water and make bulking of faecal materials possible. Fibres stool bulking capacity is the ability of the fibre to increase the volume of intestinal content because it can absorb and holds water. Bacterial growth in the colon provides additional bulking. Insoluble fibres speeds GI transit time. Cholinergic mechanisms are also responsible for modulating motor phenomena in the gut; thus it is not surprising that cholinomimetic agents are effective in promoting gastrointestinal motility. It also has cholinomimetic properties, apparently sensitizing intestinal smooth muscle cells to the action of Acetylcholine rather than acting on acetylcholine receptors. The drugs acts to hasten esophageal clearance, raise lower esophageal sphincter pressure, accelerate gastric emptying, and shorten small bowel transit time 1.4.1 Mechanism of Laxative Action: (KD Tripathi, 1999) a. By their hydrophilic or osmotic nature, laxative can cause retention of fluids, in the colonic content, as well as increase the mass. b. Inhibiting Na+K+ATPase of villous cells impairing electrolyte and water absorption. c. Stimulating adenyl cyclase in crypt cells increasing water and electrolyte secretion. d. Enhancing PG synthesis in mucosa which increases secretion. e. Structural injury to the absorbing intestinal mucosal cells. 1.4.2 Classification of Laxatives:- Many drugs in low doses act as laxative and in larger doses as purgatives 1. Bulk forming 4. Stimulant purgatives Dietary fibre: Bran (a) Diphenylmethanes Psyllium Phenolphthalein Methylcellulose (b) Castor oil 5. Anthraquinones 2. Stool softner Senna, Cascara sagrada Docusates (DOSS) 6. Osmotic purgatives 3. Lubricant Magnesium, sodium salts Liquid paraffin Lactulose 1.4.3 Anthraquinone Derivatives:- Senna is obtained from the leaves and pods of Cassia augustifolia and contains the anthraquinone glycosides called emodins. In oral dose the sennosides is poorly absorbed, but after removal of the sugar and reduction to anthrol by colonic bacteria, they are absorbed into circulation excreted in bile to act on small intestine. It takes 6-7 hrs to produce action. The active principle is believed to act on the myentric plexus to increase peristalsis and decrease segmentation. They also inhibit salt and water absorption in the colon. In India, sennosides are usually marketed in combination with stool softeners such as docusates. Side effects observed are nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, colic, urine discoloration (yellowish brown to red) and melanosis (colonic atony and mucosal pigmentation after a regular use of the drug). It should be used cautiously in women and children bebelow years of age, and after abdominal surgery. Preparations GLAXENNA tab. Sennosides ( calcium salt) 11.5 mg. SOFSENA tab 12 mg. PURSENNID tab -18 mg LAXSENA tab 12mg, 18mg(forte)

Periodic Self-Assessment Essay -- Psychology

As an aspiring clinical health psychologist, I realize increasingly the value of self-analysis. Conducting periodic self-assessment is a healthy activity as I evaluate my current state and where I want to be. Clinical health psychologists expend emotional and physical energy as they help others. Sometimes the daily strain of the job and stress that accompany the job can exhaust the clinical health psychologist both mentally and physically. Professionals cannot provide for clients if their own needs are not being met. Counselors of all theoretical orientations identify their own engagement in personal therapy with another professional as one of the most critical components to maintain their own professional balance and effectiveness (Orlinsky, Schofield, Schroder, & Kazantzis, 2011). The personal dispositions and behaviors that affect my mental and physical health are obvious. First, I have a tendency to be task oriented. This is a great quality when I am working on a doctorate, but is not always good for relaxing and enjoying time with my family. Second, my mind never seems to turn off. Sometimes, I become very engaged with difficult clients as I attempt to help them work through their difficulties and solve their problems. While my level of engagement is not inappropriate and I do not feel as though I have to fix the client, the level of expended emotional energy may not be appropriate outside of a session. Both of these personal attributes can create stress in my professional and private life. Additionally, my husband and I have six children. The oldest has mental health issues and although she lives alone, there are daily phone calls and regular emergency room visits when the medication levels are unbalanced. My youngest i... ... discuss my policy with them. To me, the questions I ask when considering any kinds of self-disclosure are (1) does this help my client, (2) can this harm my client, and (3) what are the negative repercussions that could come from disclosure? Because self-disclosure is rarely beneficial to a client, the answer to these three questions is usually â€Å"no.† References Orlinsky, D. E., Schofield, M. J., Schroder, T., & Kazantzis, N. (2011). Utilization of personal therapy by psychotherapists: a practice-friendly review and a new study. Journal Of Clinical Psychology, 67(8), 828-842. doi:10.1002/jclp.20821 Taylor, L., McMinn, M. R., Bufford, R. K., & Chang, K. T. (2010). Psychologists’ attitudes and ethical concerns regarding the use of social networking web sites. Professional Psychology: Research And Practice, 41(2), 153-159. doi:10.1037/a0017996

Humorous Wedding Speech by a Friend of the Groom -- Wedding Toasts Roa

Humorous Wedding Speech by a Friend of the Groom Good evening, Ladies and Gentlemen. My name is Robert. As they were speaking just now, it struck me how much David and his new father-in-law now have in common. After all, it's the first time in 25 years that Arthur has been able to speak for 10 minutes without interruption from the women in his family. And it'll be the last time in 25 years that David gets to do the same. So I sincerely hope he treasures this moment. But it is great to finally see David with a ring on his finger as he learned a long time ago that you cannot make someone love you. All you can do is stalk them and hope they panic and give in. So Pamela, was it the 101 red roses he sent to your office that made you give in? However, before Pamela accepted David's proposal of marriage, she wanted to clarify a few things. In particular, she wanted to limit the amount of football he was watching on TV. Well, thank goodness they managed to sort it out. In the end, David agreed that he would stop watching any game as soon as the last goal was scored. So there can be no argument about who’ll be wearing the trousers in David and Pamela’s house. David will be wearing them - right under his apron. You see, Pamela has already started to train David well - and it may surprise some of you to hear that she didn't have to start by showing him where the kitchen was. She actually had to explain to h... ... approaches marriage with the same team spirit he’s demonstrated in all the things we’ve done together, he is sure to make a success of it. Ever since I’ve know him he’s been an unselfish team player, whether it was cub scouts, football or on adventure holidays. His commitment and determination are probably what Pamela saw first in him†¦ that and his money. Ladies and gentlemen, it's an honour to be standing here as David’s best man. I suppose I should actually say it's an honour and a pleasure, but I know the pleasure won’t kick in until this speech part is over. So let’s hurry up and toast the bride and groom. To David and Pamela - may the roof above you never fall in and may you both never fall out.