LSD :: essays research papers

On October 27, 1906, a child by the name of Albert Hofmann was born(Albert, 1). This child would grow up to diversify the world forever. His research would create of subcultures of both the 1970&8217s and 1990&8217s. His discoveries would cause both grief and delight. His work in pharmacology brought the world one of the most marvellous discoveries of the 20th century, lysergic acid diethylamideIt was a prosaic day in July, 1938 when Swiss chemist, Albert Hofmann, first discovered Lysergic Acid Diethylamide(LSD). He was hoping to discover a new circulatory and respiratory stimulant, when he stumbled upon one of the world&8217s most horrifying man-made substances however, when this phenomenon was first tested it had no effects on the lab animals, so its study was discontinued.LSD&8217s study was revived in 1943, when research indicated it could potentially be used as treatment for schizophrenia, due to its similarity in structure to Nicatamide, a chemical found in the human brain, which directly affects the experiences of a Schizophrenic (DEA,1). On April 16, 1943, while Dr. Hofmann was measuring a fresh measuring of LSD, he accidentally dosed himself and was overcome with confusion. He was then obligated to leave work due to &8220a sensation of mild dizziness and &8220extreme exercise of imagination.(Discovery, 2) On April 19, 1943, at exactly 420 pm, Dr. Albert Hofmann ingested 0.25 mg. of liquid LSD and journeyed on the first intentional &8220acid trip. In 1947, Dr. Hofmann&8217s employers, Sandoz Laboratories, began marketing LSD in Europe. It was introduced into the United States a year later. They advertised it &8220as a cure for everything from schizophrenia to criminal behavior, &8216sexual perversions,&8217 and alcoholism.(Henderson/Glass, 40) Sandoz Laboratories urged many doctors to experiment with LSD to assemble further knowledge of experiences which may occur to a Schizophrenic.The effects of LSD are completely unpredictable. The user usuall y experiences wild mood swings and the sensation of odour multiple emotions at once. Colors seem more intense and objects appear to move in an almost stroboscopic manner. It has also been known for the user to feel as though they are seeing sounds and hearing colors. If a large enough dose is taken, the drug may produce perceptual delusions and hallucinations.

red scare :: essays research papers

     The war was over. The last cry of help had been heard and peace was supposedly coming to the United States. exactly everyone was wrong. An ideological war which prompted mass paranoia known as the inflammation dull had spread through the US. It began in 1919 and ended in 1921. Red Scare was the judge given to the actions of legislation, the race riots, and the hatred and persecution of "subversives" and conscientious objectors during that period of time.      At the heart of the Red Scare was the conscription law of May 18, 1917, which was put during World warfare I in order for the armed forces to be able to conscript more Americans. This caused many problems in the recollection of soldiers for the war. For one to claim that status, one had to be a member of a "well-recognized" religious organization which forbade their members to participation in war. As a result of such unyielding legislation, 20,000 conscientious o bjectors were inducted into the armed forces. break through of these 20,000, 16,000 changed their minds when they reached military camps, 1300 went to non-combat units, 1200 gained furloughs to do farm work, and 100 of these, 450 went to prison. However, these numbers are small in comparison with the 170,000 draft dodgers and 2,810,296 men who were inducted into the armed forces.     Objectors were targeted in the Red Scare after the war. They were condemned as cowards, pro-German socialists, also they were also accused of spreading propaganda throughout the United States. Many organizations stood up for the rights of the objectors. One was the National Civil Liberties Bureau, which would later be renamed the American Civil Liberties Union. The ACLU gained a reputation for helping people with liberal cases who were too poor to pay for their own representation in court.      After the tangible war ended in 1918, the ideological war, turned ag ainst conscientious objectors and other radical minorities such as Wobblies, who were members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), and also Socialists. It was thought that the Wobblies and the Socialists were act to overthrow the United States government. Wobblies, were persecuted against for speaking out against the capitalist system. Most of what they said, was only to attract attention, but it was taken seriously by the government. From the very beginning of the Red Scare, the Wobblies attacked by the government, because they were a symbol of radicalism.

The Inflexibility and Hubris of Okonkwo in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall

The Inflexibility and Hubris of Okonkwo in Chinua Achebes Things Fall ApartThis novel is the determinate tragic model about the dissolution of the African Ibo ending by Nigerian author, Chinua Achebe. Okonkwo, a great and heroic leader, is doomed by his inflexibility and hubris. He is driven by fear of failure. He had no patience with unsuccessful men. He had no patience with his father. Unoka, for that was his fathers name, had died ten years ago. In his day he was lazy and improvident, and was quite incapable of thinking about tomorrow. (Achebe,4).The reader gets a rare and exotic understanding of a totally foreign and ancient culture experiencing the growing pains of colonial expansion during the British domination of Nigeria in the late 1800s. Okonkwos ferocity is demonst stepd in the carrying out of his personal affright to the earn within his family, his community, and the invaders. His ferocity, born of fear, is his evil. During the calendar week of Peace, one of Okonkwo s wives, Ojiugo, has left the compound, ignoring her children and domestic duties, to plait her hair. And when she returned, he beat her very heavily. In his anger he had forgotten that it was the Week of Peace. His first two wives ran out in great alarm pleading with him that it was the sacred week. (Achebe, 29) But Okonkwo was not a man to stop beating someone half-way through, not even for fear of a goddess. (Achebe, 30)Being unable to bend, he loses self-control and eventually all he has once stood for. The novel examples rites, initiations, and tribal usage whose images can be disturbing to western mentality, but also stresses the parallels and need in all cultures to have such ceremonies acknow guideging important events in... ... make interesting reading. iodine could almost write a whole chapter on him. Perhaps not a whole chapter but a reasonable paragraph, at any rate ... He had already chosen the title of the book, after much thought The Pacification of the Primitive Tribes On The Lower Niger. (Achebe, 208-209)Achebe suggests that colonialism has led to this entire tragedy, but the seeds of dread and self-will are obvious in Okonkwo. He is not a survivor. Our goal is to survive. In our journey through this life of good and evil influences, we purposefully choose our own end by the choices we make along the way. Success can be defined as the acceptance of all of our experience that has led us where we are today. Acceptance of ourselves is the key to acceptance and tolerance of others.Works CitedAchebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Oxford, Eng. Heinemann Educational Pub., 1996.

Scarlet Letter Essay -- Literary Analysis, Hawthorne

Weak and powerless ar so me of the words that describe womens subroutine in Puritan society. Men were the breadwinners and women were confined to the household. Most women lived their lives under the authority of men, but because of her unusual place in society Hester was able to overcome this. In The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne switches the typical male and female roles to prove that when given the opportunity, women can be strong and independent members of society. Hawthorne uses Hesters reaction to her punishment of wearing the garner A, to show women can brook in society without being dependent on men. Additionally, Hawthorne uses Hesters relationship with Chillingworth and Puritan authorities to represent how women can be dominant. Furthermore, Hawthorne breaks down normal gender characteristics by switching the typical male and female traits of the characters in the novel. Because Hester was able to take care of herself and Pearl socially and economically as a singl e mother, Hawthorne proves that women can survive in society without being dependent on men. Hawthorne states The tendency of her fate and fortunes had been to set her free. The scarlet letter was her passport into regions where other women dared not tread (137). Hester was an outsider in her community and was able to look at society and the world with a unique elevation of view. Unlike most women during the seventeenth century, Hester was not confined to the household and was not under the authority of a husband. Hester defies the stereotype that women are weak and frail and cannot survive on their own. Because Hester does not have a husband to provide for her and Pearl, she is forced to provide for her family economically. She possessed an art that suf... ...y become active members of society, just like men, if they are allowed to be gender neutral. Hawthorne breaks down normal gender characteristics by switching the typical male and female traits of the characters in the novel to prove that when society allows women to be gender neutral they can be just as important and able members of society as men. In The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne uses Hester as a symbol of womens liberation from male authority. Hawthorne believed women could be strong, independent and able members of society if only they were given the opportunity to prove themselves. Hester was a single mother that successfully provided for herself and her daughter and additionally stood up for herself when threatened by male authority. Hester is proof that when women are not under the restrictions of society they can be just as independent as men.

Alexander Hamilton’s First Federalist Paper -- Federalist Papers

Alexander Hamiltons First Federalist PaperAlexander Hamiltons first Federalist Paper endorses ratification of the proposed constitution. His unifying point is that the use of footingin the form of the peoples reflection and choice leave behind lead to the legality, whereas their use of passion will lead to ruin. Hamilton attempts to persuade his readers to make the correct termination by reminding them of the sheer importance of the matter. He suggests that good men will want to make the correct choice in light of their true interests (33), slice the adversaries of the Constitution will be ruled by passions, deceit, and even weak minds. He frankly warns his readers against any impressions other than those which may result from the evidence of truth (35) he offers them a chance to join him on the right side of the issue, which he implies he has arrived at by knowledgeable deliberation. Fin eachy, Hamilton courts his audience by implying that they will use reason to reach the truth . By contrast, the opponents of the Constitution rely on their emotions and follow a much more certain road to the introduction of one-man rule (35). In the first paragraph, Hamilton introduces the idea of truthnot in passing, but by asking whether good government from reflection and choice is at all possible (33). He indicates that the decision is of greater importance than just one country the wrong decision would deserve to be considered as the general accident of mankind (33). By broadening the implications of the question at hand, depicting it as of the first magnitude to society (34), and describing the Constitution as the safest course for your liberty, your dignity, and your happiness (36) and brotherly to the discovery of truth ... ... is a compliment to his readers minds. He uses words like consideration, frankly acknowledge to you, and I propose (36) to illustrate the rationalism he expects to function with them. Hamilton uses imagery and rhetorical language effectiv ely in order to discredit his adversaries in the eyes of the people. His main tool is a rationalistic truth which he detaches from his opponents and associates with himself. He also portrays truth religiously, and connects the Constitution and its supporters with the highest cause. Hamilton passionately defends and elevates the peoples use of reason. But he equally passionately believes that the peoples reason is admirable only when it leads to the conclusion that the United States needs a strong, vigorous, central government. Source CitedThe Federalist Papers, ed. Clinton Rossiter New York Penguin Books, 1961

Alexander Hamilton’s First Federalist Paper -- Federalist Papers

Alexander Hamiltons First Federalist PaperAlexander Hamiltons first Federalist Paper endorses ratification of the proposed constitution. His unifying point is that the use of reasonin the form of the peoples reflection and choice allow for pass along to the truth, whereas their use of passion will lead to ruin. Hamilton attempts to persuade his readers to make the correct decision by reminding them of the sheer importance of the matter. He suggests that good men will want to make the correct choice in light of their true interests (33), while the adversaries of the Constitution will be ruled by passions, deceit, and even gutless minds. He frankly warns his readers against any impressions other than those which may result from the evidence of truth (35) he offers them a chance to join him on the right side of meat of the issue, which he implies he has arrived at by knowledgeable deliberation. Finally, Hamilton courts his audience by implying that they will use reason to reach the t ruth. By contrast, the opp unitynts of the Constitution rely on their emotions and follow a much more certain road to the introduction of despotism (35). In the first paragraph, Hamilton introduces the idea of truthnot in passing, but by asking whether good government from reflection and choice is at all possible (33). He indicates that the decision is of greater importance than just one country the wrong decision would deserve to be considered as the general misfortune of mankind (33). By broadening the implications of the question at hand, depicting it as of the first magnitude to society (34), and describing the Constitution as the safest course for your liberty, your dignity, and your happiness (36) and favorable to the discovery of truth ... ... is a compliment to his readers minds. He uses words uniform consideration, frankly acknowledge to you, and I propose (36) to illustrate the rationalism he expects to share with them. Hamilton uses imagery and rhetorical language effe ctively in order to sink his adversaries in the eyes of the people. His main tool is a rationalistic truth which he detaches from his opponents and associates with himself. He also portrays truth religiously, and connects the Constitution and its supporters with the highest cause. Hamilton passionately defends and elevates the peoples use of reason. But he equally passionately believes that the peoples reason is admirable only when it leads to the conclusion that the United States needs a strong, vigorous, interchange government. Source CitedThe Federalist Papers, ed. Clinton Rossiter New York Penguin Books, 1961

Salem Telephone Company – Essay

capital of Oregon knell Company 1. ) Variable and Fixed Costs The variable follow that Salem Data work incurs with keep to gross hours ar power impost and periodic personnel wages. Power usage is a variable cost because the calendar monthly power disbursal changes as a result of how much of the computer service is used. The hourly personnel wages are a variable cost as well because hourly workers are required to work when the computer service is operational. The gross hours change distributively month and this causes the hourly workers salary to change too.The fixed costs, with respect to revenue hours, are rent and custodial serve for the space that is carryd by Salem Data work as well as the computer leases, maintenance, derogation of the computer equipment and the depreciation of the office equipment and fixtures. Other fixed costs include the salaried staff in charge of operations, the salaried staff that are in charge of the systems development and maintenance, the administration staff and the gross sales staff, which are also salaried. These are all fixed costs because they stay the same each month and are non affected by the change in revenue hours each month.The last two fixed costs are sales forward motion and corporate services. sales advance is considered a fixed cost because the expense is not related to the current level of work. This cost was determined by the managers approximation of how much they lacked to spend in order to acquire new clients. Corporate services are also considered a fixed cost because they not related to the level of work or monthly revenue hours that are generated. Exhibit 1A on the attach worksheet shows the variable and fixed cost breakdown for each month. 2. ) Cost Per Revenue HourFor the power variable cost, the cost per revenue hour is found by taking the power expense for each month and dividing it by the nub revenue hours for each month. For January, the power expense is $1,546 and the keep down revenue hours are 329. The cost per revenue hour is $4. 70 ($1,546/329). For February, the power expense is $1,485 and the original revenue hours are 316. The cost per revenue is $4. 70 as well ($1,485/316). For March, the power expense is $1,697 and the total revenue hours are 361. Cost per revenue is again $4. 70 ($1,697/361).For the hourly personnel, the steps taken above are used to compute the cost per revenue. For January, the hourly personnel wages are $7,896 and the total revenue hours are 329. The cost per revenue hour is $24 ($7,896/329). In February, the hourly personnel wages are $7,584 and total revenue hours are 316. The cost per revenue hour is again $24 ($7,584/316). Finally in March, the hourly personnel wages are $8,664 and the total revenue hours are 361. The cost per revenue hour comes out to be $24 ($8,664/361). The total cost per revenue hour for each is $28. 0 and this is computed by adding the cost per revenue hour for the power expense and the hourly pers onnel together. These calculations can be found in Exhibit 2A on the attached worksheet. 3. ) Contribution Margin Income Statement Exhibit 3A on the attached worksheet shows the contribution margin income statement for Salem Data Services when Salem Telephone usage is 205 hours and the mercantile usage is at the March level of 138 hours. The total sales are $192,400 of which $82,000 belongs to sales made from Salem Telephone at a $400 sales price and $110,400 of this belongs to commercial usage at a sales price of $800.The total variable costs are $9,844. 10. This was found by taking the total cost per revenue hour of $28. 70 and multiplying it by the total revenue hours, which were 343 (205+138). The contribution margin is $182,555. 90. This was determined by taking the total sales of $192,400 and subtracting out the variable costs of $9,844. 10. To get the net income, the total fixed costs of $212,939 are subtracted from the contribution margin, which produces a loss of ($30,383. 10). 4. ) Breakeven Point In order for Salem Data Services to breakeven each month, they will need to produce roughly 178 hours.Exhibit 4A on the attached worksheet shows the equation and calculation for the breakeven mind. The equation for breakeven point is total sales equals total cost (variable and fixed). The total sales for Salem Data Services was the intra order sales of $82,000 (205 hours X $800) plus the commercial sales of $800(X). The (X) represents the amount of unknown commercial hours that we are movementing to find. The total costs are the cost per revenue hour of $28. 70 multiplied by both the 205 intracompany hours and the unknown commercial hours (X) plus the fixed costs of $212,939.The breakeven point is 40 more than hours than Salem Data Services sold in March. Overall, from January to March, the amount of commercial hours sold has increased, but in small increments. Salem Data could reach this breakeven point in a future month if their hours continue to incr ease, but they will be susceptible to an increase in their variable costs and an increase in a couple of their fixed costs, such as sales packaging and corporate services. 5. ) Income Effect Estimation In option 1, Flores has suggested that Wu increase the price to commercial customers from $800 to $1,000.He projects that this will decrease demand by 30%. If this were to occur, the net income would be a loss of ($42,995). Exhibit 5A on the attached worksheet illustrates how this number was determined. Total sales were $178,600, variable costs were $8,656, and fixed costs were $212,939. When the variable fixed costs were subtracted from the total sales, this produced the loss mentioned above. Option 1 would not be a executable option for Salem Data Services because it still produces a negative net income.In option 2, Flores suggested that Wu decrease the price to $600 for commercial customers. Making this change is communicate to increase demand by 30%. In this projection, net inc ome will still be a loss of ($34,331). Exhibit 5B illustrates how this number was determined. Total Sales were $189,640, variable costs were $11,032, and fixed costs were $212,939. After the variable and fixed costs were subtracted from the total sales, the effect was a loss. Option 2 would also not be a viable option for Salem Data Services because again it still produces a negative net income.In option 3, Flores has suggested to Wu that increased forwarding would increase revenue by 30%, but Wu is not sure how much promotion would be needed. To find how much promotion would be needed, we reason the effect of the 30% increase. The price in this option remained at $800 for commercial customers. Exhibit 5C illustrates this. The total sales were $225,520, variable costs remained the same as in option 2 of $11,032, and fixed costs were still $212,939. When the variable and fixed costs were subtracted from the total sales, this produced a positive net income of $1,549.Wu should increa se the sales promotion expense by this amount to generate positive income. This, however, is contingent upon the demand increasing by 30%. 6. ) Based on my analysis, Salem Data Services is a problem to Salem Telephone Company right now because even with a price increase or a demand increase, the company will still produce a loss. If Flores were to close down Salem Data Services, he would save Salem Telephone Company the following costs Rent $8,000 Maintenance $5,400 Power $1,697 Operations Salaried Staff $21,600 Operations Hourly Personnel $8,664Systems Development and Maintenance $12,000 Administration $9,000 Sales $11,200 Sales promotional material $8,083 Total $85,644 The custodial services and the expenses for the equipment and depreciation are not included in this list because the custodial services were based on an estimated annual cost per square foot and will still have to be paid for the remaining months of the year. The leases for are noncancelable and will still have to be paid until the lease period is up. The depreciation will also still occur while Salem Telephone has the equipment in their possession.Moreover, I did not include the corporate services in this list because I assume that Salem Telephone will still have to collect some accounts receivable and will still try to collect on past-due accounts, even after Salem Data Services is closed. Furthermore, if Flores decides to shut down Salem Data Services, he will have to outsource his computer services to another company and pay the market price of $800 instead of $400, which is currently being paid to Salem Data Services. If Salem Telephone were to use the 205 hours as estimated previously, then the company would have to pay $164,000 (205 hours X $800) monthly to another ompany. This means that Salem Telephone would end up stipendiary $78,356 ($164,000-$85,644) more to another company rather than keeping Salem Data Services in business. My recommendation to Flores would be to keep Salem Dat a Services open. I believe as Wu does that given time, the company will start to generate a profit. In the meantime, Flores should have Wu keep the price of commercial usage at $800, but try to increase demand by 30% to at least breakeven each month. Once this occurs, then Wu should increase sales promotion to try to obtain more customers and increase commercial usage.

Gender Roles in fairytales

Reflective Response Analyzing Gender Roles Gender Bias is still very evident in our society and I believe it is also still present in Fairy tales. Despite how far weve come in equality between genders, childrens fairy tales still operate to advertise the gender bias and stereotypes set upon men and women. Many of these stories depict their male heroes as powerful, tough, and dominant, and their female counterparts as selflessly dedicated and submissive damsels in distress. Children absorb these messages from a very young age, through their exposure to fairy tales in media such as storybooks, childrens films andTV shows. These messages give them the impression that the only way to be happy is to fulfill the traits of the ideal male/female figure. Little girls frequently dream of becoming the beautiful princesses while little boys strive to be the properly brave knights, warriors and fighters. Many stereotypes appear in Disney movies, for example Cinderella displays apparent gender bi as, stereotypes and discrimination. This movie shows the classic storyline the courageous, fearless prince charming saves the helpless sapless princess from doom.Cinderella is characterized as a tender earted girl who passively accepts her fate which is to live with her evil step-mother and step-sisters. Her life doesnt change until prince charming takes an interest in her and swoops in to save her from her trifling life by becoming not only her one true love, but also her sole provider. This is an evident example of Disney portraying women as weak and docile. Cinderella does not stand up for herself but has to contain for a man to do it for her. This stereotypical storyline teaches young children how they must be to be accept in society boys must be strong, girls must be weak.This kind of message is engrained into young girls minds that they have no control over their lives and must wait for a strong male fgure to save them. These tales teach girls to be passive and dependant b ecause any female characters that break these norms are depicted as an evil. If a woman is strong, independent and speaks her mind (stereotypical male traits), she is seen as nothing but obnoxious or a bitch. Not only are girls bear upon by these gender stereotypes throughout fairy tales but boys are taught to be the leader, to be strong, emotionless and aggressive giving many young oys aggression problems later in life.These stereotypes give men the impression girls are weak and need some sort of saviour in their life leading them to treat women give care they are doing them a favor by simply being with them. All these images help to construct a cultural norm of male dominance. The depiction of firm and aggressive men and tender and loving women teaches children that these are the norms of society and this is how you should act, when in reality you can be any of these traits no matter what gender. Gender Roles in fairytales By frankiem29

A Doll’s House: Nora’s Character Essay

From the first moments of her entrance, the audience perceives Nora Helmer as a spoiled, childish young muliebrity. She is revealed as a loving woman who wants to spoil her family with more Christmas gifts that she may be able to afford. She also continues to eat macaroons in secret, deliberately against her husbands wishes, which shows a childs stubbornness and determination. Throughout Henrik Ibsens A Doll House, Nora Helmer grows from what the audience perceives as a flighty, immature child to a level-headed, mature woman.After the entrance of Mrs. Linde, Noras childhood friend, the audience learns that Nora has borrowed money something that women of that time were not permitted to do. Not only did she borrow money, but she borrowed it through an unscrupulous banker that Torvald works with, Krogstad. Although her intentions were admirable, Noras partaking in an illegal act showed more immaturity on her part. Having to lie to Torvald about what she was doing with the money he gave her only further proves that she was not capable of handling such a beneficial transaction.During Noras talks with Torvald over Krogstad, Torvald says, Almost everyone who goes bad early in life has a mother whos a chronic liar (Ibsen 1527). This intelligence activity causes Nora to panic and shut down all contact with her three children. While a statement such as that does warrant some kind of reaction, Noras extreme actions show a blind confidence in her husbands words. She believes that everything he says must(prenominal) be gospel. If she had more knowledge of being a mother, she would have known that she could challenge his bold words.Although many people are able to see goodness in others no matter how slight it may be, Nora blindly assumes that because she has three small children, Krogstad will not reveal their transaction to Torvald or the authorities. At the beginning of Act II, she says, Nothing terrible could happen. Its impossible. Why, I have three small child ren (Ibsen 1527). A more experienced woman would know that nothing, not even something as sweet and innocent as children, back end get in the way of a desperate man.From Act II to the end of the play, Nora continually refers to a miracle. It seems that she wished Torvald would take care of the whole situation with Krogstad once he found out about it and love and praise her for her sacrifice. After he outright condemns her, calling her a criminal and a liar, Torvald accuses Nora of wrecking his happiness, tells her she must never see the children, and blames her fathers parenting for the entire situation. When Nora realizes Torvald is not going to suffer for her sake or take on her guilt, something in her snaps. Even later they get Krogstads note back and burn it, she knows things cannot remain how they have been in the past. She says, Ive been your doll-wife here, just as at home I was pas doll-child (Ibsen 1552).By the final scenes of the play, the audience watches as Nora blos soms into a strong, independent woman. She refuses any money that Torvald offers her, and finally challenges some of his words. She tells him that he may have the dominance to make himself over if his doll gets taken away (Ibsen 1555). That small exchange proves that she is not merely running from her problems, but she genuinely wants Torvald and herself to have a obtain to change. At last she walks out the door but leaves Torvald with the hope that someday they might have a true marriage. She sighs, You and I both would have to veer ourselves to the point that That our living together could be a true marriage (Ibsen 1556).

Neriagi Nerikomi

Neriage and Nerikomi be two ceramic techniques that have been used for umteen years by various ceramicists. Although the terms Neriage and Nerikomi argon used interchangeably they are really different. Neriage is done on a potters wheel and means that the stiff is being mixed and pulled up as it is thrown where as Nerikomi is done by extend and by pressing clay into a mold. Both methods are done with colored clays which are usually earth tones such as grey, reds, blues, and beige. Neriage and Nerikomi both originated from Japan and other areas of Asia where they have been practiced for a period of time.Neriage means to pull up and mix. This is what creates the imitate of colors within the clay. both different color clays are mixed together to try and imitate the look of agate that is why is it also called agateware. Agate is a variety of quartz that comes in a variety of colors. Neriage was brought into America and Europe in the twentieth century by the Mingei. The founder of the Mingei was Yanagi Soetsu. Mingei means art of the people and was an art movement in Japan. The design was to create basic art made by ordinary people that still had an artistic flair.Nerikomi means to mix and press into. Nerikomi is done by hand rather than on a wheel. The same concept of mixing is used in Nerikomi as in Neriage. It is made by mixing metal oxides and stains into the clay to give it its color. The clay is then shaped into logs and then molded into forms. Each form is molded to a uniform thickness and an identical pattern is created on each side of the form. Nerikomi began in the Tang Dynasty in the seventh century and has been practiced by the Europeans and Egyptians. This technique is very complex unless is very down to earth in the making process. It is made by hand and is very traditional. Nerikomi is a very difficult process but the end matter is beautiful.Various artists throughout time have used these techniques. Matsui Kosei has used both techniques. M atsui Kosei is considered a master of Neriage. He researched the ceramics of Japan, China, and Korea to become a scholar of his trade. He was natural in 1927 which was the start of the folk art movement in Japan. Being born in this time probably influenced him greatly because its main goal was to halt the belief that ordinary people can do extraordinary things. He has made many pieces such as bowls, vases, vessels, and various other things.Rich horse parsley is another artist that has been introduced to Neriage. He is from Clinton, Washington and aspires to create rustic pieces with a modern feel. His work is simple pots and vases. He chooses to use browns and beiges because of his closeness to nature. His signature designs and glazes include wood ashes to give the piece a more natural texture and color.Another artist is Thivo. Her work consists of Nerikomi and other ceramics. She was originally born in Vietnam but moved to France for professional arts training. After this she mo ved to New York City. Her main designs are flowers and abstract colors. Her bowls and vessels are odd designs and contain an almost involvement like pattern on the edges. Her pieces are also very symbolistic of nature. Neriage and Nerikomi are both ceramic methods that originate from Japan and other areas of Asia. Although the techniques are often confused they are very different and started over a hundred years apart. Neriage is a much younger art form compared to the ancient Nerikomi. Both techniques are very complex and take much study to perfect. Many artists such as Matsui Kosei, Rich Alexander, and Thivo have reached a greatness within these art forms and many will continue to practice these timeless methods.

Content and language Essay

In this piece of coursework I will be study the scargoncrow cover of a broadsheet and a tabloid briskspaper on the day that labour won the 2001 Election. To do this I will be concentrating on three main attributes, which are design and layout, content and language. First of all I will look at how effective the design and layout of the presence cover is. On my chosen tabloid, The Sun, there is of course the bright red Sun logo but even more striking is the advertise, Blairs Back. This headline is over double the size of The Sun logo. There is then on the left-hand side of the foliate a largish picture of Tony Blair. infra the big heading is a sub heading which reads, apprehend romps in with epic second landslide. Below the sub heading is a small section of schoolbook that carries on inside the paper. Overall the design and layout of this front cover is quite effective because the bold headline stands out and really hits you in the face which makes you indispensability to acquire the paper to retard what the headline means. The sub heading then gives you more information, which shows that the paper is quite informative. The exposure on the front cover ads a bit of colour and life to the paper to show the reader that it isnt a dull paper.There is also a lure at the back end of the page that says, See pages 2, 3, 4, 5 and 4-page pullout. This shows the potential buyer that there is a lot more information inside the paper about the choice that encourages them to buy the paper. Basically, the front cover of The Sun concentrates entirely on the election. On the other hand in my chosen broadsheet, The clock, it is a rattling different story. The front page of The Times doesnt just concentrate on the election but on many other topics including things like sport. Like The Sun it has a assignment and price at the top of the page. The main headline reads, Election reward for Prescott. This is referring to the new job John Prescott will get now that La bour has been re-elected. Below that in the centre of the page is a picture of Tony Blair enjoying a day out with his family. Below that is another smaller story about the election. The headline says, Blair forecasts merely growth. There is another smaller picture of the Blair family to the left of the headline. Below that is a completely unrelated denomination about Lord Archer. To the right of this story is an advert for Tiffany & Co. diamonds. Overall the design and layout of The Times is really effective. The main headline is bold and simple which stands out.The photographs add life and colour to the paper. The amount of text shows the buyer it is a very informative paper that will appeal to a lot of heap. The second story and the advertisement shows the buyer that the paper is interested in the election but the final story shows the buyer that it is also interested in the rest of the world. There is also a lure at the bottom of The Times. It reads, The Times Today page 2. Crossword p 32. Media Times 2, p 21-25. TV & radio Times 2, p 27-32. This also encourages the buyer to buy because there are other things inside apart from news. The photographs on both papers are also important.In the Sun it shows a smiling Tony Blair in a apparel and tie. I think that the picture is stressful to say that Tony Blair is happy to be back in office and he is going to try his hardest to make a difference. In The Times there are two photographs which show a very similar thing. Both of the photographs show Tony Blair acting very relaxed with his family. The bigger photograph was taken this year just before the election but the smaller one was taken in 1997 before the election. I think the photos are trying to say that Tony Blair is almost taking it too easy and that he thinks he has already won.The headline of a newspaper and the way it is presented is also very important. On the front cover of The Sun the headline is short, snappy, bold, big and close together. The h eadline reads, Blairs back, which is in block capitals. The headline takes up just over half the page even though it is very short. I think the headline is trying to create the effect that Labour is back, bigger and better than ever. On the front page of The Times it is very different. The main headline on the front page is a lot smaller and less bold than the one in The Sun.It is a lot more spaced out and not as to the point as The Sun. The headline reads, Election reward for Prescott. The headline is in subvert case writing but is bolder than the text in the article. I think the headline is trying to create the effect that if Labour win the election people involved get rewards. In other words if you work hard you will get a treat The arguments and issues presented in the lead story are a very important part of a front page. On the front page of The Sun it is obvious straight away that The Sun is very pro Labour. You dont even need to read the article to know this.At the top of the page there is a badge with the Labour symbol in the middle. In the article though it says, Tony Blair powered back into No10 early today after a SECOND landslide victory. You can see straightaway that The Sun is persuading the public that Labour deserves to be back in office. After reading the article you can also tell that The Sun does not like the Torys. In the article it says, Jubilant Mr Blair crushed Tory dreams of a revival-and put William Hagues job as Opposition leader in peril. This is a very blunt and uncaring comment and it shows The Suns loyalty to Labour.In the article it also gives you all the statistics to show you by how much Labour won, as if they havent already The ITN exit poll gave Labour 417 seats. The Suns article is also very brief with not much concomitant in it. The Times article though is very different. It has a very neutral attitude and it is almost being unfair to the Labour party. In the article the writer raises the issue that although John Pre scott has been given a new title he has been doing that job all along. Mr Prescott is being switched from his role as Environment depositary to become Mr Blairs deputy in fact as well as name. The writer then raises the argument that John Prescott wont be with Labour come next election. Even so, some ministers believe it will be surprising if he stays in the Government throughout the new Parliament. The article in this paper is a lot longer and more detailed. The language in the two newspapers is very different. This is because The Sun appeals to the working class soulfulness where as The Times appeals to the more professional classes. That is why The Times uses more sophisticated language and The Sun is very blunt and to the point.

Street Children – Bangladesh

STREET CHILDREN BANGLADESH Children in Bangladesh make to face m whatsoever challenges. In Bangladesh over 40 million people are life story below the poverty line and most of these families do not have own land. They are living and farming in flood-prone areas and face yearly inseparable disasters, inefficient agricultural technologies, low education, a polluted environment. These family did not get proper health services and is in limited employment. Undernourishment is the common bribe for the children. 50 percent of children under age 5 are undernourishment.Children are facing imperative problem with schooling. Very small percent of them complete their primal education. Among them only 40 percent girls complete their primary education. In this situation they need our help. Help the children. This is my very small step to help the Street Children in Bangladesh. They need our help. So we should forward our expert hand to help hem. For doing this kind of great job money is not only the solution, we need the people with good heart and I think you are the one of them.I hope your cooperation to do something good for the children. So come on and cooperate with us with your good think, knowledge, change surface with a single word. Help the children. If you are stuck for a few minutes at a traffic signal in the Bangladesh capital Dhaka, you will likely see children rushing up to the windows of your vehicle. Some of these children carry flowers some have a stack of books in the crook of their arms, some carry bundles of newspapers and some have candy for sale. They try their best to earn sympathy from commuters to sell their goods.This painful scene is ubiquitous on the paths of Dhaka. These highroad children are known as Pothoshishu. The street is where they earn their living. The total number of street children in Bangladesh is estimated at 400,000. Almost half of these children live in Dhaka city alone. A very large-mouthed percentage of these children are young girls. These female street children are especially vulnerable to abuse and exploitation. On March, 2012 Unnayan Onneshan published a report titled societal connection of the street girls in the context of Dhaka city, Bangladesh pdf.The research shows that the majority of the street girls (37. 50%) sell flowers for a living. 18. 80% of these young girls are strained into prostitution, 6. 25 % work in the clothing industry, 6. 25% become beggars, 12. 50% start as shopkeepers and 6. 25% are paper-hawkers. Almost half of these girls have a measly daily income of Tk. 101-299 ($1. 25-$3. 75). The daily income of 43. 75 % of the girls is Tk. 300 (US$3. 75) and above. alone they seem to be the lucky ones, because 6. 25 % of the street girls earn less than Tk. 100 ($1. 25) per day.Almost 45% of these girls do not receive any treatment from government medical facilities or clinics. 3 out of 10 of these girls have never been enrolled in any type of educational institution. Most wo men in Bangladesh are vulnerable to fall victim to abuse such as rape, murder, eve teasing, dowry and acid attacks. But the street children who spend their childhood under the open skies of Dhaka face such risks on a daily basis. This graph is taken from the above report, which shows statistics of violences inflicted upon street girls

Refrigerated Rail Cars

In one of the Laura Ingalls Wilder novels, there is a passage relating the authors first encounter with an orange, a novel experience in frontier America. The issue was that transportation of most food stuffs at that point had to be through via dry goods or those preserved in salt as mass burn downning was non yet available and transporting food stuffs for long distances could often result in more(prenominal) rot than product delivered to the end user It is then with this in mind that we must consider the invention or refrigerate rail cars and afterward preserve trucks as one technology breakpoint for the food industry.Others would include mass canning techniques and the development of safer workplace technology, but perhaps the biggest impact on the American aliment and the food distribution industry. With the invention and widespread use of refrigeration techniques, production of agricultural goods could skyrocket and spoilage was reduced to a minimum. With that in mind, we w ill stress the direct impact of refrigeration on the force to transport food without spoilage before tenseing market. No longer were small farms growing comme il faut produce for their local community necessary.Suddenly, magnanimous agricultural c at oncerns in calcium could meet the nations demand for many types of fresh produce and do it at a cost that undercut many local farmers. This technological breakpoint changed the way America ate and the very basics of the countrys economy. In this case, the technological breakpoint was almost 150 years ago, but the product continued to improve from there to the refrigerated trucks that are in common use today. though many improvements have been made to the technology since the breakpoint,In frontier America, as discussed by Wilder, food stuffs that could be transported were either those that could be dried (like pinto beans), root vegetables that travelled vigorous even during extreme temperatures (like potatoes and turnips), or foo ds that could be preserved in some manner, usually by drying or salting. Fresh vegetables and most fruits had to be raised topically of they simply werent available. As the country became more mechanized, railroads were used to ship fruits and vegetables to the frontier, but they still had a very limited shelf life.And, the Rocky Mountains were a huge barrier. Though there was an abundance of fruit and vegetables raised in California, most of it would rot before it could be shipped east over the mountains (California State sandbag Museum). Until the Civil War, the high inland valleys of Colorado produced some vegetables for consumption on the east coast as the loss due to rot was significantly less(prenominal) when the trains did not have to cross the Rockies (South Fork T induce History 2007). entirely it was an intrastate transporter that first saw the potential to improve his bottom suck with technology.To Parker Earle, an enterprising fruit grower of Cobden, Ill. , goes the c redit for pioneering in this development. After several unsuccessful efforts to ship strawberries to Chicago without their spoiling on the way, Mr. Earle hit upon an idea. During the winter of 1865-66 he harvested a large quantity of glassful, and he packed the ice in sawdust in his barn so it would keep well into the summer. Then he reinforced several large wooden chests with double linings. Each chest was fitted with two compartments. When the berry-picking season arrived Mr.Earle packed one compartment of each chest with ice and the other compartment with strawberries. (Catskill roll 2007). This system of methamphetamine the product to create early refrigeration then expanded from Chicago to the rest of the country. It was only a step from the iced chest to the iced stroke car, and Parker Earle was one of the pioneers in this venture also. By 1872 many carloads of strawberries and other fruits were being shipped from southern Illinois to Chicago under refrigeration. In 1885 berries from Virginia were shipped to New York under refrigeration.Three years ulterior Florida oranges entered the New York market, and in 1889 New York received its first carload of deciduous fruit from California. (Catskill archive 2007) The immediate advantages of the icing system were obvious. Earles berries got to the market eld before the local crop was ready and earned him as much as $1 a quart, making it a very profitable year. But at least initially, the railroads were not willing to invest in the icing technology required to promote this new development on a large scale. For the trip from Cobden to Chicago, about 300 miles, icing at the point of origin was sufficient.But for longer distances, the railroad would have to create icing send where the melted ice could be replaced. Many were initially resistant, not seeing the enormous profit potential from the investment (California data track History Museum 2007). Refrigerator cars could not operate efficiently without an elaborate support system. Icing stations had to be located at regular intervals, railroad scheduling had to be reliable so that trains would reach the icing stations before the ice melted, and a dependable marketing system had to be in operation so that the most perishable produce would not rot on the loading docks.Most railroads were slow to recognize the significant profit to be made with refrigerator cars. Initially, private companies owned the reefers and contracted with the railroads to haul them, in operation(p) fruit blocks, special trains consisting entirely of refrigerator cars carrying perishables. These trains were given priority over most other traffic. Eventually most railroads purchased their own refrigerator cars or make refrigerator car subsidiaries with other railroads (California Rail History Museum 2007).The development had spinoff effects on the marketplace as well. In California, when railroads initially resisted developing icing stations and buying their o wn refrigerated cars, local fruit growers banded together to form a fruit growers cooperative and integrate their business vertically, handling their own shipping with cars owned by the fruit growers association (Powell 1910). And, the impact was solely on fruit and vegetable production. In Chicago, local shipping officials saw the implications of Earles idea and quickly applied it to the meat-packing industry.Where once cattle had to be transported on the hoof to major(ip) markets, requiring a slaughter house in every major city, the ability to ice their meat and send it out to the rest of the country s cemented Chicagos place as meatpacker to the country (Hill 1923). By 1887 wholesale meat shipping was reliable enough to allow Midwestern cities such as Chicago and Kansas city to become national meat packing centers. (California Rail History 2007) As the centers for the nations railroads, Kansas City and Chicago were perfect for the developing meat industry once the refrigeratio n issue was solved.Both were close to ready livestock country, preventing the need for the long, old-fashioned cattle drives or having to transport the stock via rail to the market, thus driving up costs for the producer. In short, the advent of the refrigerated car made meat a much more accessible and affordable part of the diet for American city dwellers (Crossley 1976). Where previous only persons in rural areas where they could raise their own livestock had plentiful access to beef and pork, the development of the refrigerated car made meat more affordable for everyone.What once had been an expensive treat was now as close as the neighborhood butcher shop. This development also probably contributed to the industrialization after the turn of the century. front to the advent of the refrigerated car, a citys development was limited by the physical constraints of producing enough food to feed the citys inhabitants. With the ability to safely transport food across the country, city dwellers could be assured of having access to the same foods as those who had lived in rural America and have the economic and cultural benefits of the city.This availability, combined with the agricultural proficiency of some regions of the country, helped lead to the beginning of the decline of the traditional family farm. Because fruit growers in California were so proficient at their jobs, coupled with the use of low-cost migrant labor, the development of refrigeration had a huge impact on the way America eats. According to one theater of operations in the 1950s, the widespread availability of refrigeration decreased the amount of grains and potatoes that the average family consumed, products that would have been readily in the pre-refrigeration era.Post-refrigeration, people consumed more eggs, milk, meat and fruits and vegetables (Chaney 1957). This information is not meant to imply that the development of transportation ceased after Earles first experiment with adding ice to shipped strawberries, but other developments were simply refinements to the technology. By 1900, some meat packers were development a form of mechanized refrigeration and by 1914 most railcars for meat shipments were also refrigerated via mechanical means instead of ice (Hill 1914).By the middle of the century, tractor-trailers with refrigerated compartments would hit the roads and some of the food transport would move from rail to highway (Crossley 1976). But even more than 140 years after Earles ice experiment, most of the internal transportation of food within the United States is done by refrigerated rail car. Of more than 35,000 carloads of fresh fruits and vegetables received in Boston in 1939, 10,456, or 35 per cent, came from California 8,224 carloads, or 23 per cent, came from Florida, and 1,925 carloads, or 6 per cent, came from Texas.Thus, approximately two out of every tercet carloads came from these three distant states. (Catskill catalogue 2007). As youngly as 2004, Congress enacted legislation to attempt to make the rail transportation of food stuffs more sanitary, blaming the transportation for recent outbreaks of salmonella and E. coli (AllBusiness. com 2004). To provide the American people with year-round, nation-wide service in the transportation of perishable products, the railroads operate a fleet of 145,000 refrigerator cars. Assembled in a single train, these cars would reach 1,194 miles across the country. (Catskill archive 2007).Though we often disregard the nations railways as a means of transportation, the development of the food industry proves that the use of the railway can be vital to the development of an industry. It is imperative that we learn the lesson of the refrigerated rail car and realize that technology does not necessarily have to be piercing edge to have a major impact on the lifestyle we choose to lead. After all, though a cutting edge iPhone may be all the rage, eggs and bacon for breakfast will help get the day off to a good start. The technology needed for breakfast is much more complicated, and older, than we might have imagined. Works CitedCalifornia Rail History Museum, , Access December 18, 2007. Chaney, Margaret S. The Role of Science in Todays Food Marriage and Family Living, Vol. 19, No. 2, Health and Family Welfare. (May, 1957), pp. 142-149. City of South Fork, Colorado, City History , Accessed December 18, 2007. Crossley, J. C. Processing Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 66, No. 1. (Mar. , 1976), pp. 60-75. Hill, Howard Copeland. The Development of Chicago as a Center of the core group Packing Industry The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol.10, No. 3. (Dec. , 1923), pp. 253-273. Loading Spinach into a Refrigerator Car, Catskill Archive, , Access December 18, 2007. Powell, Fred Wilbur. Co-operative Marketing of California Fresh FruitThe Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 24, No. 2. (Feb. , 1910), pp. 392-418. Senate Bill seeks to Regulate S anitary Transportation of Food http//www. allbusiness. com/refrigeration/20041119/4455016-1. html, Accessed December 19, 2007. Appendix 1 From the Catskill Archive Loading spinach into a reefer, a refrigerated rail car.

Nigerian Scams – 419 Scam

Nigerian Scams 419 Scam Information Nigerian, or 419, snatchs are bingle of the most common sheaths of fraudulent email currently hitting inboxes. Nigerian cozenage cognitive contents can besides arrive via fax or letter. The passs generally claim that your help is needed to access a giant jibe of specie, usually many millions of dollars. In fact, this money does not exist. The messages are an opening gambit socking to draw potential victims deeper into the scam.Those who initiate a dialogue with the scammers by replying to a Nigerian scam message will eventually be asked for advance fees supposedly required to allow the deal to proceed. They may too become the victims of identity theft. The so-called Nigerian scam is one of the longest running that I know about. In fact, it predates the Internet and email. The scams are also known as 419 scams after the appropriate part of the Nigerian criminal code. The scammers still utilisation surface mail and faxes as well as ema il.There are a great many versions of this scam. Although many originate out of Nigeria, hence the generic term Nigerian scam, it is certainly not only Nigerian based criminals that send them. In spite of the longevity of this type of scam and the large amounts of publicity that it has set outd, many people around the world are still universe conned out of substantial sums of money. I regularly receive enquiries from Internet users who have received Nigerian scam emails and do not know what they are about. Basically, the scam works like this.You receive an unsolicited message that masquerades as some manner of business proposition, request for assistance, notice of a potential inheritance, or opportunity to help a charity. In fact, there is a seemingly endless array of cover stories that the scammers use in order to draw potential victims into the con. In spite of this diversity, virtually all of the scam messages parcel a common theme. The messages all claim that your help is n eeded to access a large sum of money, usually many millions of dollars.The scammers use a variety of stories to explain why they need your help to access the currency. For example * They may claim that political climate or legal issues preclude them from accessing funds in a foreign brim account. * They may claim that your last name is the same as that of the decedent person who owned the account and suggest that you act as the Next of Kin of this person in order to gain access to the funds. * They may claim that a rich businessman, who has a terminal illness, ineluctably your help to distribute his wealth to charity.The messages offer to let you keep a significant percentage of the funds in question in exchange for your assistance. This percentage is the bait that the scammers use to entice potential victims deeper into the scam. in one case a recipient has taken the bait, and initiated a dialogue with the scammers, he or she will soon receive requests for fees that the scammer claims are necessary for processing costs, tax and legal fees, or bribes to local officials.The scammers will take to task the victim that these advance fees need to be paid before the funds can be procured. In reality, the supposed funds do not exist. The major purpose of these scam messages is to trick recipients into parting with their money in the form of these advance fees. Fraudulent requests for fees will usually continue until the victim realizes he or she is being conned and stops sending money. In some cases, the scammers gain enough information to access the victims bank account directly or steal the victims identity.

Papoer

The furbish up of Music on Language & Early Literacy A Research unofficial In Support of Kindermusiks ABC Music & Me The Impact of Music on Language & Early Literacy A Research Summary In Support of Kindermusiks ABC Music & Me Introduction Early barbarianhood classroom teachers conceive in the power of medicine to engage children. What scientific totallyy based research supports the use of medical specialty and melodic instruction to build early literacy skills?This research summary answers that question, providing support to educators who wish to integrate music and musical instruction into their early language and literacy programs in schools. This research summary reviews high-quality experimental studies conducted in classrooms with younker children receiving music education, plus relevant brain research that steeringes on the furbish up of musical instruction on the brain.The impact of music and musical instruction on early language and literacy development for young c hildren is examined in the pursuit areas ReadingComprehensionandVerbalMemory ListeningSkills Vocabulary,includingforEnglishLanguageLearners PhonologicalandPhonemicAwareness WritingandPrintAwareness ImpactonChildrenwithDisabilities FamilyInvolvement The research summarized below provides strong support for including music and musical instruction in the earlychildhoodclassroom.Importantly,thisrecommendationismadenotjustforthevalueofthemusical experience itself, except also because of the impact music and musical instruction can have on young childrens development of language and early literacy. Music Instruction & Reading Scores Linked Reading recognitionisseenastheessenceof teaching material(Durkin,1993)andthedesiredoutcomeof reading instruction, including the focus of assessment on standardized reading tests starting in third grade.Comprehensionisdefinedasintentionalthinkingduringwhichmeaningisconstructedthroughinteractions betweentextandreader(Harris&Hodges,1995). Anumber ofresearchstudieshavefoundthatchildrenwhoparticipateinmusicinstructiontendtoscorehigher on tests of reading comprehension than children who do not participate in musical instruction. Ameta-analysisof25correlationalstudies,someinvolvingsamplesizesofover500,000students, foundastrongandreliableassociationbetweenmusicinstructionandscoresontestsofreading comprehension(Butzlaff,2000). Astudyof4,739elementaryandmiddleschoolstudentsinfourregionsoftheUnitedStatesrevealed astrongrelationshipbetweenelementary(third-orfourth-grade)studentsacademicachievementas measuredbytestscoresandtheirparticipationinhigh-qualitymusicprograms(Johnson&Memmott, 2006). While these studies are appealing, one cannot conclude from correlational studies alone that the music instruction was the cause of the gains in reading scores. To answer that question, we turn to the experimental studies that heterogeneous pre- and post-testing of young children receiving classroom music education.Theauthorsofaclassicstudy(Hurw itzetal,1975)askedwhethermusictrainingimprovedreading performance in first grade children. The experimental root current musical instruction including listening to folk songs with an emphasis the listening for melodic and rhythmic elements. The control group consisted ofchildrenwhowerematchedinage,IQ,andsocioeconomicstatusandwhoreceivednospecialtreatment. Aftertraining,themusicgroupexhibitedsignificantlyhigherreadingscoresthandidthecontrolgroup,scoring inthe88thpercentileversusthe72ndpercentile.Moreover,continuedmusicaltrainingwasbeneficialafteran additional year of musical training, the experimental groups reading comprehension scores were alleviate superior to the control groups scores. These findings provide initial support for the view that musicinstructionfacilitatesthe world powertoread. More new-made research focuses on the specific impact of music instruction on the subprocesses involved in in(predicate) reading. Researchersbelievethatmusicinstruction impacts a students brain functioning in touch language, which in turn impacts reading subprocesses like phonemic awareness and vocabulary.These subprocesses ultimately impact a students ability to read with comprehension. Music Instruction Improves Verbal Memory Research Into Practice ABC Music & Me KindermusiksABCMusic&Mehelpsteachers engage young children in language- and literacy-rich musical activities that include playful instruction in foundational music skills andinstrumentexploration. Researchsuggests that engaging young children in these types of musical activities are correlated with later success in reading comprehension.Anotherwayinwhichmusicinstructionmaypositivelyimpactreadingabilityisthroughincreased literal memory. The findings linking music training to literal memory are primal because verbal memory is essentialforreadingprintedwordswithcomprehension. Asreadingprogressestosentencesandtextsof greater lengths, verbal memory allows a child to retain material in memory as it is being read so that syntactic andsemanticanalysesnecessarytocomprehensioncanbeperformed.Verbalmemoryisessentialforall childrenlearningtoread(Brady,1991StoneandBrady,1995),andpoorperformanceinverbalmemoryhas beenassociatedwithreadingdisabilitiesforyoungchildren(AckermanandDykman,1993Cornwall,1992 Scarborough,1998). Recentbrainandpsychologicalresearchshowsthatmusicinstructioncanhaveapositiveimpactonverbal memory. Astudyofninety6-to15-year-oldboysfoundthatthosewithmusictraininghadsignificantlybetter verbal learning and retention abilities. The longer the duration of the music training, the better the verbalmemory(Ho,Cheung,&Chan,2003).Afollow-upstudyconcludedthattheeffectwascausal. The authors suggest that the cause of the increase in verbal memory was neuroanatomical changes in the brains of children who were playing music. Anotherstudyfoundthatlearningtoplaya musical instrument enhances the brains ability Research Into Practice ABC Music & Me torememberwords. Adultswithmusictraining ABCMu sic&Meengageschildreninactive in their childhood demonstrate better verbal music-making with a variety of musical memory,accordingtostudyauthorChan. instruments both in the classroom and at Thisbrainresearchwith60adultsshowedthat home.Researchsuggeststhatthisearly musicians have enlarged left cranial temporal experience may improve childrens verbal regions of the brain, which is the area involved in memory, an important factor in successful processingheard training. Asaresult,people text comprehension for later stages of reading withmusictrainingcouldremember17%more development. verbal information than those without music training(Chanetal,1998). Music Helps Build Listening Skills Learningtolistenisaprerequisitetolisteningtolearn,stressesresearcherMayesky(1986).Listeningisthe first language mode that children acquire, and it provides a foundation for all aspects of language and reading development. Listeningisaverylargepartofschoollearning,withstudentsspendinganestimated50to75 perce ntofclassroomtimelisteningtotheteacher,tootherstudents,ortomedia(Smith,1992). Despitethefrequencyoflisteningactivityinclassrooms,listeningskillsarenotfrequentlytaughtexplicitly (Hyslop&Tone,1988Newton,1990). Mostteachersteach,assumingthatbecausetheyaretalking,their studentsarelistening(Swanson,1996).Asaresult,manychildrendonotacquirethelisteningskillsnecessary to acquire new knowledge and information. Too often listening is thought to be a natural skill that develops automatically, but in fact developing good listeningskillsrequiresexplicitinstruction. Ifweexpectchildrento proceedgoodlisteners,weneed to teach them to become activelisteners(Jalongo, 1995). Directinstructioninlisteningskillsshouldinclude lessonsdesignedtospecificallyteachandmodelthe skillsnecessaryforactivelistening(Matheson,Moon &Winiecki,2000). Anexperimentalstudywithyoung English language earners showed that focused listening instruction can benefit listening comprehension for childrenlearningasecondlanguage(Goh&Ta ib,2006). Musicalactivitiesarecitedbyresearchersaseffective experiences for build listening skills in the classroom (Hirt-Mannheimer,1995Wolf,1992),forbothmainstream classrooms and classrooms with children who have disabilities. (Humpal&Wolf,2003). Research Into Practice ABC Music & Me EachunitofABCMusic&Megiveschildren not wholly the opportunity to listen actively to music, but also includes focused listening activities using music, non-musical sounds, andlanguage.Classroomroutineshelp teachers focus childrens attention on listening todirections. Read-aloudstoriesandsongs give children opportunities to practice listening to extended discourse. Recentbrainresearch(Flohretal,1996)showsthatmusictrainingchangesandimprovesbrainfunctioning relatedtolistening. Anexperimentalstudywithchildrenages4to6providedmusictrainingfor25minutesfor 7weeks,andthenmeasuredbrainactivity. ThosechildrenwhohadreceivedmusicaltrainingproducedEEG frequencies associated with increased cognitive processing and greater relaxation.Music Can Build Vocabulary, including for English Language Learners Manyeducationalresearcherspromotemusicasawayto enhance vocabulary acquisition and comprehension, and emphasize musics ability to engage children in instruction (Fountas&Pinnell,1999Miller&Coen,1994Page,1995 Smith,2000Wiggins,2007). Accordingtoeducationalresearchers,thereissubstantial evidence that children acquire vocabulary apropos byreadingandlisteningtooralstories(Krashen,1989). Duringthepreschoolyearsbeforechildrencanread, children rely exclusively on the oral language they listen to in order to acquire

Decision Making Essay

finish qualification disregard be define as the cognitive passage resulting in the leaseion of a belief or a course of a action among several choice possibillities. Every Decision fashioning outgrowth produces a final choice James Reason (1990) that may or may non promp action. Effective Decision Making is the study of identifying and choosing alternating(a)s ground on the values and preferences of the ratiocination driver. Decision qualification, is oneness and only(a) of the central activities of perplexity and is a huge part of any implemantation. For strong determination fashioning, a person must be adequate to forecast the outcome of each option as well, and found on all these items, determine which option is the best for that particular situation.Human performance in finality reservation terms has been the subject of active reserach from several perspectives. Form a psychological perspective, it is necessary to come across individual finis in the con text of a set of needs, preferences an individual has and values they seek.Form cognitive perspective, the finality reservation exercise must be regarded as a continous process integrated in the interaction with the surroundings. From a normative perspective, the analysis of individual finales is concerned with logic of determination fashioning and rationalness and the invariant chioce it leads to.Daniel Kahneman, Amos Tversky 2000 The ability to puddle wise, educated endings is essential to living a succesful and fulfilled life. Individuals, roots or teams train finales every day. Some terminations be very essential and affect lot of spate whereas other s runping points ar small and affect only one or two people. A decision-making process based on data leads to considerably decisions. A major concern in guidance has been to understand and improve decision making. Isabel Briggs MyersMyers, I.1962. There lead been two approaches to focus decision making Huber, 1980. The stolon is concerned with bring onment and operation of normative decision rules based on formal logic derived from stintings or ststistics.The second involves descriptive accounts of how people actually go closely making judgements, decisions and choices. Isable B. MyersMyers,I. (1962).Decision making can usually be improved by breaking a conundrum into parts, working on the parts separately, and then faction themm to make final decision. It has been shown in a variety of works that business decision making environment is a unity of decision shapers experience, belief and perceptions on one side, and decision support tools and techniques on the other side.In making significant decisions, any info rmation sources that contain relevant important atomic number 18 deprivation to be accessed and substance abused. In this presentation we argon going to show decision making process, theoretical accounts, and types. And explain how we can make strategic decisions in different situations. In fact in making decision in management has a significant role as Peter Drucker says 90 percent of activities in management is decision making, so we atomic number 18 going to discuss this important subject to show different survey of it and sire new ideas in this argona re await.2.0 Decision Making Process and StepsDecision making can be categorised as a process evaluating a conundrum to find stem. It is everlastingly best to strive for the best decisions? There may non be the Probably not injure for perfect solutions cann freeze decision overlords into inaction. They to a fault superpower be fear of making wrong decision.When forum data and study becomes more important than making decisions and taking action sometimes, its better to make decisions, risk mistakes and then learn from the mikstakes when you make them. After all, then saying isnt decision make perfect, its practice makes perfect. S. Herper (2000) As said coca cola decision which has resluted to tommyrot suggests the grand need for decision making in business. A management decision typically typically affects a great number of people-customer, stockh matureers, employers and the general worldly concern.Coca cola is accountable to more than century000 officeholders and of extensive number of employee. Professional undertake to see the managers decision which reflected its positive returns in their revenue identify.It has emphasise on the welf ar of the employees and the economis health of the community in large and take into affection the effect to the country as whole. To strive and prosper, proffessional managers should be able to withstand the pressure and make sound decision. Companies do not necessitate dynamics failures they require individuals wha be properly equipped to make decisions. It doesnt mean that the decision noblemans (managers) is 100 percent is accurate intimately of the time.They also tends to make wrong decisions most of the time a t the outgo of the shareholders.It does suggest that succesful managers have a higher batting average than les succesful managers. R. Wayne Mondy (1993) The process of decision making does not occur in tandem. The brass external environment influence the decision making process and the inner(a) environment assist what and how the decision making should take place. For causa the success of Pepsi-Cola in gaining market share while Coca Cola lost it and help to convince Goizueta that was needed. Whether a decision is programmed or no(prenominal) programmed and regardless of managers choice of the classical, administrative, or political sit around of decision making, a decision making process typically hasfive steps1) Idenitify the problem or prospect2) Develop alternative3) Evaluate alternative4) require and implement the best alternative5) Evaluate the decision2.1. Identify the problem or prospect check to Harold Leavitt, a business leader must have thre major talents proble m solving and subsequent decision making, implementing and visionary and entreprenuel talents. Some people view decisions making only as problem solving, however problems are best treated as opportunities. The offset printing in the decision making process should be to scenting for alternatives in the first place a decision is made. As known in that location is no one best decision method is live on. All problem should be treated as opportunities. Eventually, problems bequeath make themselvesevident. All problem can be converted to opportunity. All existing problem can be corrected if managers establishment the problem as opportunity to progress. Managers confront a decision requirement in the form of every a problem or an opportunity.A problem occurs when organisational achievement notaccomplishment is less than establishment destinations. An opportunity exists when m met as ecpectaion of an organization and exceed specified targets of an organizations. Identifying of a p roblem or opportunity is the first step in the decision sequence and requires survillance of the internal and external environment for issues that merit executive director attention. Richard L. chapped (2005) Managers often search and evaluate the world around them to determine the progres of the organization .Some information comes from periodic monetary reports, performance reports, and other sources that designed to discover problems before they become too serious. Managers also take expediency of informal sources. They talk to other managers, gather opinions on how things are going, and seek advice which problems should be talked.2.2 Develop alternatives A typical problem can be solved in various ways and method. Several alternatives is getable before a decison is made. The choices that the decision maker has to decide are alternatives. A decision making process is utmost important and a executable way to solve the a probleeThe only alternatives that really counts is the one judged best among those considered. At this point in the decision making process, however, it is important to consider all feasible ways by which the problem can be solved. Once the problem or opportunity has been recognized and analyzed, decision makers begin to consider m (opportunity).The next stage is to generate come-at-able alternative solutions that result respond to the need of the situation and correct the underlying causes. One study found that limiting the search for alternatives is a primary csuse of decision failure in organizations. Paul C. Nutt (1999). Decision alternatives can be though of as the tools for reducing the difference between the organizations current anddesired performance. Once a problem or opportunity has come to managers attention, the understanding of the situation should be refined. Diagnoses is the step in the decision making process in which managers analyzes underlying casual factors associated with the decision situation. Managers make a mistake here if they jump right into generating alternatives without first exploring the causes of the problem more deeply. C. Kepner and B. Tregoe (1965).2.3 Evaluate Alternatives Almost all possible solutions there are advantages and disadvantages. But there maybe be only one solution for any existings problem (opportunity). It may also faculty not be the only best solutions for the problem (opportumity). Coca cola alienate to replace the old coke is part of an alternative decision. It is essential that managers realistically appraise arguments for or against a particular alternative. sometimes an idea might sounds good initially, but taking time to weigh the pros and cons of alternatives usually pays off. There are number of ways evaluating alternatives. One way is to list yhe strength and weakness of the problem (opportunity). Total esteem should be attached and to forfend on the strength and weakness and overall importance should be assumption to conclude the alternative. 2.4 Choose and implement the best alternative an alternatives implentation is chosen once the decision of choice is established. The decision of choice is the selection of the most promising of several alternative course of action. In order to cull best alternative one has to achive the desired results using the resources.In order to make choices on managers personality factors and go forthlingness to stimulate risk and un deduction. At this stage the use of managerial, administrative, and persuasive abilities to ensure that the chosen alternative is carried out. It also has a similirarity to the idea of strategic implementation. The ultimate success of the chosen alternative depends on the whether it can be translated into action. In the evaluation stage of the decisionprocess, decision makers gather information that tells them how well the decision was implemented and whether it was effective in achieving its tendencys.Feed buns pertinent because decision making is a continou s, never ending process. When an executive or board of directors votes yes or no then the decision making is not arrestd.The feed back provides decision makers with information that can assist to new decision cycle. What separate the succesful managers and less succesful ones is the ability to select the best course of action from several possible alternatives. The alternative offering the highest promise of attaining the objective, taking into consideration the ovearall situation, should be selected. It is an easy t demand but fear to make a wrong decision result make the managers to avoid making decision at all. In most organization the onus is on the managers to make decision as they are high salaried and they carry the task to make a sound decision.2.5 Evaluate the decision For completing a decision-making process one have to first menace to the realities of the business environment. An objective assessment required to turn the problem into opportunity and this implementation does not complete the decision making process. R.Wayne et al (2005)3. Ethical Decision Making Half of all decisions taken be managers not necessarily solev the problem after all. Most of the time they ignore honourable questions. High ethical and guideline standards needs to put into consideration before performing the management functions. When making un pop decision such as layoffs, one has to be ethical by giving advance notice and assisting them to find a new job elsewhere or within the organization. Couple of study need to be taken to evaluate oneself, are we making the right decision or not. Firstly ask yourself, ar there any legal restrictions or violations that will result from this action? If so, try other alternative course of action. Secondly does it ciolate the union code of ehics? If yes find a different pathto follow. Thirdly ask does this mmet the guideline of my own ethical philosophy? and if the answer is yes, then your decision must still passing two importan t test. Gitman et al (2008)The feeling test now you must ask, How does it make me feel? this will enable yourself to evaluate your comfort level in producing a particular decision. A sense of provocation will seep in if youve make a wrong decision where one will release of sleep or appetite and my go into depression. Front page of the newspaper test the final test is the front page of the newspaper the question to be asked is how a critical and objective reporter would report your decision in a front page story. Gitman et al (2008) Decision relos According to Mitzberg the time managers put down obtaining and sharing information is not an end in itself. The time spent taking to and obtaining and sharing information with people inside and outside the company is useful to managers because it helps them make good decisions. According to Mitzberg, managers engange in quadruple decisional sub roles entreprenuer, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator. Chuck Milliams (2 005)4. Decision Making ModelsDecision making pretences primary decisions making models the rational model and the leap intellect model. The rational (also called the classical model), the decisio maker attempts to use optimizing, selecting and best possible alternative. In bounded rationality model (also called the administrative that meet the minimal criteria. Robert N. Lusssier (2006). Making better decisions upstart research shows that managers, who make the best decisions, dont overanalyze by relying on rational decision making model, nor do they oversimplify by relying solely on their intuition. Instead, many managers utilize a concept refered to as recognitional decision making. Recognition decision making leads to quicker decisions than rational decision making because it integrates the use of memory in the context of a situation in order to develop an immediate feel for the current situation. Chuck Williams (2005)4.1 Classical Model the classical model of decision model of decision making is based on economic assumptions. This model has arisen within the management literature because managers are expected to make decsisions that are economically sensible and fit the organizations best economic interests. The four assumptions underlying this model are as follows 1. The decision maker operates to accomplish goals that are known and sgreed on. Problems are precisely formulated and defined. 2. The decision maker strives for conditions of certainty, gathering complete information. All alternatives and the potential results of each are calculated.Assign 3. Criteris for evaluating alternatives are known. The decision maker selects the alternative that will maximize the economic return to the organization. 4. The decision maker is rational and uses logic to claim values, order preferences, evaluate alternatives, and make the decision that will maximize the attainment of organizational goals. The classical model of decision making is considered to be norm ative, which means it defines how a decision maker shouls make decisions. It does not force how managers actually make decisions so much as it provides guidelines on how to fulfil an ideal outcome for the organization.4.2 understanding It is frequently said that efective decision making must be rational. People acting and deciding rationality are attempting to reach some goals that can not be attain without action. They must have a clear understanding of alternatives coerces by which a goal can be reached under existing fortune and limitations. They also must have information and the ability to analyze and evaluate in light of the goal sought. In many respects, the classical model represents an ideal model of decision making that is often un attainable by real people in real organizations. It is most valuable when applied to programmed decisions and to decisions characterized by certainty or risk, because relevant information is available and probabilities can becalculated. Rich ard L. Daft (2005).Programmed decisions are design based on the historical data to enable all levael of managers are able to make a decision base on the same situation problems all the time. As such it can be reason as a set of policy serve as a guideline and also act as a SOP. A non programme are made to situations that are unique, are poorly defined and largely unstructured, and ahev impportant consequences for the organizations. The decision regarding a recall at Toyota is an example of a a non programmed decision. Another good example comes from the financial services industry. Decision to to acquire a company, build a new factory, develop a new product or service, enter a new geographical market, or relocate head quarters to some other city are all non programmed decisions.4.3 Bounded rationality The administrative model is base on the work of Herbert A. Simon. Simon proposed two concepts that were slavish in shaping the administrator model bounded rationality and satisficing . There are limitations to the bounded rationality or boundaries. Organizations are incredibly interwoven and managers have the time and ability to process only a limitated amount of information with which to make decisions. Because managers do not have the time or cognitive ability to process complete information about complex decisions. Satisficing is a decision made at the first encounter of any situation.Minimal consideration disposed to consider any alternative. There is no time frame on how long this process will take place. It merely rely on assumptions. 1. Organization decision goals are often not clear, exist dispute and always have dis system among the managers. 2. Rational method are not often popular amongst managers alike and only confirned to simplistic point of view and does not get the attention of of real organization events. 3. Managers searches for alternative sre kimited because of human, information, and resources constraints. 4. All the decision makers (manag ers), often prefer the satisficing rather than maximizing solution, partly because they have especial(a) information and partly because they have only unclear for whatconstitute a maximizing solution. 4.4 Administrative model This model is description are charecterized by uncertainty and ambiguity.Most of the management decisions are normally programmeable to tot up themselves to any degree of qualification. The decision maker (manager) are unable to decide and economical rational decision. no(prenominal) programmed decisions are used for unstructured, novel, and ill-defined situations of a nonrecuring nature. Example is the developing of the four wheel drive rider car by Audi. In fact strategic decision, in general, are none programmed decisions. Most decisions are neither completely programmed decisions. Most decisions are neither completely programmed nor programmed none programmed they are a combination of both. Heinz Weihrich et al (2005).The administration model of decision making is based on the work of Herbert Simon. Simon proposed two concepts that were instrumental in shaping the administrative model bounded rationally and satisfying. According to the administrative model Decision goals are often unclear and disputing in nature and lack of consensus among managers. Managers are often not able to see the problems (opportunity) that exists in the organization. Rational procedure are not often and when they are they are trammel to a simplistic view of the problem that does not captiure the complexity of real organization view.4.4.1. Intuition another aspect of administrative decision making is intuition. Intuition represents a quick apprehension of a decision situation based on past experience but without conscious thought. Weston. H, Agor (1986). Intuitive decision making is not arbitrary or irrational, because it is based on years of practice and hand-on experience that enable managers (decision makers) to promptly identify solutions without goin g through pain staking computations.4.5 Political model is the model of decision making is often used for making none programmed decisions when conditions are uncertain, information is limited and there is often disagreement amongmanagers about what goals to pursue or what course of sction to take. The political model closely resembles the real environment in which most managers and decision makers operate. Decisions are complex and invlolve many people, information is often ambigous, and disagreement and conflict over problems and solutions are normal. There are four basic assumptions of the political model. Organizations are made of groups with diverse interests, goals, and values. Information is ambigous and incomplete. Managers do not have the time, resources, or mental capacity to identify al dimension of the problem and process all relevant information. Managers engange in the push and pull of debate t decide goals and discuss alternatives. Decisions are the result of bargain ing and discussion among coalition members. Richard L. Daft (2005)4.6 The Kepner-Tregoe method this model combines the oblective approach with some subjectivity. The subjectivity comes from determining must and want criteria and assigning weighted values to them. Robert N. Lussier (2006). The Kepner-Tregoe method is a technique for comparing alternative using the criteria selected in steps 2 of the decision making model.Robert N. Lussier (2006).5. Individual Decision Making and Group Decision Making Problems in any organization occurs when they were conflict of agreement of certain issues, as such one must decide who should participate to find the solution. As refering to the current trend the management favors increased employe participation. Using to group to improve decision making according to study reported in fortune magszine. 1 percent of U.S. companies use teams and group to solve specific problem. Individuals who are highly defensive attitude in this manner show significa ntly greater left prefrontal cortex activiry as calculated by EEG than do less defensive individuals. Blackhart, G. C., & j. P. (2995) Group decision making is critically important to meet the current fast moving organozations trends.The informal or formal group exist to reach a consensus and todiscuss a particular problem by creating a short list of pleasant alternatives or deciding on criteria for accepting an alternative. They are known as a support remains and supported by electronically to support this system. Turban, et al (2008). Group method invlove in decision making It always discussed that it only involve a single manager to make a certain organization decision. This individual is liable for the outcome of decisions under their control. Effective decisions generally combine high quality with bridal by those affected by the decision. Group bring different resources to the decision making task. R. Wayne et al (1993) 5.1 authority advantages of group decision making Th e group has an advantage to make a sound decision on complex issues in comparison the individuals in a organization.Special in case of significant none programmed decision and conditions of risk or uncertainty. More information, alternatives, creativity and innovation Generally a group of people contains more information than an individual. Than they can more creatine and innovative. They usually have options and alternative to apply before an effective decision is agreed upon. Greater communication to the decision The people engange in the decision making process have greater options in increased communication to implementing the decision. And improved participation in problem solving and decision making is rewarding and personally satisfying to the people and will improve team spirit and motivitation. Training.Allowing participation in decision making trains people to work in groups by developing group process clevernesss. 5.2 Potential disadvantages of group decision making Wasted time Satisficing Domination and goal interlingual rendition A certain sub group may dominate the group decision. Disagreement occurs when there were no 100 percent agreement from overall decision making process rather than pursuing goal of finding the best solution. Conformityand group thinking Inferior feeling and disagreement might crept in before a certain agreement takes precident and the end result will be a conflict. Robert N. Lussier (2006). For creating, yeasty alternative solutions in groups decision making there are five popular techniques BrainstormingSynectics tokenish groupingConsensus mappingDelphi techniqueBrainstoming is the process of suggesting many possible alternatives without alternatives. Synectics is the process of generating novel alternative through role playing and fantasizing. Nominal grouping is the proces of generating of generating and evaluating alternatives using a structured voting method. This proces usually invloves sise steps listing , recording, clarification, ranking, discussion and voting. Consensus mapping is the process of developing group agreement on a solution to a prblem. The Delphi technique involves using a series of confidential questionnaires to refine a solution. Robert N. Lussier (2006) 5.3 Personal decision making Imagine you were a manager at, GM, a local movie theater or the public library.How would you go about making important decisions that might shape the future of your department or company? As we are aware that there is number of factors may effect how a managers make efevtive decisions. For example the decisions may be programmed or non programmed, situations are charactirized by various level of uncertainty, and managers may use the classical, administrative, or political model of decision making. Richard L. Daft (2005) 6.0 Innovative Group Decision MakingThe critical skill the managers possess to make a high quality decisions is an essential as they have to make legal age of decision on their own. Is it practical for the managers make thisdecision?No. The rapid face of the business enviromnment calls for estimable the opposite i.e, for people throughout the organization to be invloved in decision making and have the information, skills, and immunity they need to respond immediately to prblems and questions. Managers bdo make some decisions as individuals, but decisions makers more often are part of a group.Indeed majoir decisions in the byusiness world rarely are made entorely by a single manager. 6.1 Brainstorming is a method a group of people and discuss spontaneously gigantic range of ideas and policies before decision making. The efective brainstorming are people can be bulid on one anothers idea number of ideas will be fielded and they will come to an consensus after wide range of ideas is discussed. It also have some drawbacks as there maybe making decision to please the superior or to impress colleagues. Studies found that when four people are asked to brainstorm individually. They typically come up with double as many ideas as a group of four brainstoming.6.2 Rigorous debate an efective decision maker (manager) always encourage a rigorous debate of a certain issues. It also recognize that formative conflict based on divergenr points of view bring a problem into focus, clarify peoples ideas, stimulate creative thinking. Chuck buck, the former CEO of Emerson Electric, always sparked debate during strategic planning meetings. Knight believed rigorous debate gave people a clearer picture of the competitive landscape and forced managers to look at all sides of an issue, helping them reach better decisions. 6.3 Groupthink pressures for conformity exist in almost any group, and in particular when people in a group like one another they tend to avoid anything that might create disharmony. It has tendency to surpress contrary opinions.When the group thinking mode is activated, maintaining unity will be given priority ather than realis tically challenging problems and alternatives. People censur their personal opinion and reluctant to criticize the opinion of others. 6.4 Bailout in the fast paced environment managers are risk takers and learniong frommistakes. Theyy also not hesitant to pull the plug when something not working. According to researches managers and organizations often continue to invest time and money in a solution notwithstanding strong evidence that is not appropriate. This move is knwons as escalating commitment. Managers might take initiative m to precisely block or distort negative information because they do not want to be responsible to make a wrong decision.ConclusionThe decision making in organizations invloves number of thories and easy to understand. The economic academician has derived methods to assist the decision makers (managers) to derive a good decision in order to avoid making bad decisions. It is very difficult to make good decisions without valid relevant information. It invo lves choosing between a wider process in problem solving. It can be through either an intuitive or season process, or a combination of the two. There are number of stages to any structured decision making. For important decisions it is woryth always keeping a record of the steps you followed to make the decision. That way, if you n are ever critisized for making a bad decision, you can justify your thoughts based on the information and process you used at the time. Furthermore by keeping a record and enganging with the decision making process, you will be strengthen your under standing of how it works. This can make future decisions more easier for managers.References.1. James Reason (1990). Human Error.Ashgate. ISBN 1840141042. 2. Daniel Kahneman, Amos Trversky (20000. Choice, Values, Frames. The Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521621720 3. Isabel Briggs MyersMyers, l (1962) Introduction to type A description of thetheory and applications of the Myers-Briggs type indicator, Cons ulting Psychologist Press, Palo Alto Ca., (1962) 4. Martinsons, Maris G., Comparing the Decision Styles of American, Chinese and Japanese Business Leaders. Best Paper Proceedings of Academy of Management Meetings, Washington, DC, August (2001) 1 5. Blackhart, G. C.., & Kline, J.P. (2005). Individual differences in anterior EEG asymmetry between high and low defensive individuals during a rumination/ mismanagement task. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 427-437. 6. Drake, R.A. (1993). Processing persuasive arguments 2. Discounting of truth and relevance as a function of agreement and manipulated activation asymmetry. Journal of Research in Personality, 27, 184-196. 7. Chua, E. F., Rand-Givanetti, E., Schcter, D. L., Albert, M., & Sperling, R.A. (2004). Dissociating confidence and accuracy Functional magnetic resonance imagery shows origins of the subjective memory experience. Journal of Cognetive Neuriscince, 16, 1131-1142. 8. Selected Topics in Indeteministic System Inter systems Publications California, (1989), p. 21 9. Richard L. Daft. New Era Of Management tenth edition, Thomson, (2005), pp 237-258. 10. Heinz Weirich and Harold Koontz. Management A Global Perpective. 11th edition. McGrow Hill, (2005) pp144 11. R. Wayne Mondy and Shane R. Premenua. Management, Concepts, Practices, and Skills. 6th edition, Allyn and Bacon. (1993)pp116,123,128 12. Robert N. Lussier, Management Fundamentals Concepts, Applications, Skills development, Thomson, (2005) pp 115-118,123-126,134,168.1213. S. Harper, Timing the basic principle of anticipatory management, business horizons, (2000)p75 14. Herbert. A Simon, The new science of management decision, harper and bow, (1960)pp5-6 15. Weston. H, Agor, the logistic of intuition how top executives make important decisions, organizational dynamics, 14, (1986), pp5-18 16. Herbert A. Simon, Making management decisions the role of intuition andemotion academy of management executive, (1987)pp57-64 17. James. G. March and He rbert A. Simon, Organization, wiley (1958)pp22 18. http//www.businessdictionary.com/definition/decision-making.htmldecisionmaking 19. http//www.mftrou.com/decision-making-tool.htm.